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Every Boy's 
Mechanical 
Library 



AUTOMOBILES 



Every Bovs Mechanical Library 

By J. 8. ZERBE, M.E. 

Price, per volume, 60 cents, Net. Postage extra. 


AUTOMOBILES 

This is a subject in which every boy is interested. While few 
mechanics have the opportunity to actually build an automobile, 
it is the knowledge, which he must acquire about every particular 
device used, that enables him to repair and put such machines in 
order. The aim of this book is to make the boy acquainted with 
each element, so that he may understand why it is made in that 
special way, and what the advantages and disadvantages are of 
the different types. To that end each structure is shown in 
detail as much as possible, and the parts separated so as to 
give a clear insight of the different functions, all of which are 
explained by original drawings specially prepared to aid the reader. 


MOTORS 

To the boy who wants to know the theory and the practical 
working of the different kinds of motors, told in language which 
he can understand, and illustrated with clear and explicit draw¬ 
ings, this volume will be appreciated. It sets forth the ground¬ 
work on which power is based, and includes steam generators, and 
engines, as well as wind and water motors, and thoroughly de¬ 
scribes the Internal Combustion Engine. It has special chapters 
on Carbureters, Ignition, and Electrical systems used, and par¬ 
ticularly points out the parts and fittings required with all de¬ 
vices needed in enginry. It explains the value of compounding, 
condensing, pre-heating and expansion, together with the methods 
used to calculate and transmit power. Numerous original illus¬ 
trations. 


AEROPLANES 

This work is not intended to set forth the exploits of aviators 
nor to give a history of the Art. It is a book of instructions in¬ 
tended to point out the theories of flying, as given by the pioneers, 
the practical application of power to the various flying structures; 
how they are built; the different methods of controlling them; 
the advantages and disadvantages of the types now in use.; and 
suggestions as to the directions in which improvements are re¬ 
quired. It distinctly points out wherein mechanical flight differs 
from bird flight, and what are the relations of shape, form, size 
and weight. It treats of kites, gliders and model aeroplanes, 
and has an interesting chapter on the aeroplane and its uses in 
the great war. All the illustrations have been specially prepared 
for the work. 


CUPPLES & LEON CO., Publishers, 


NEW YORK 

































































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LAMP BRACKET* 

STEERING KNUCKLE • 

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RADIATOR FILLER, 

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CYLINDER PRIMING 
HOOD BRACKET 
FRAME 

FRONT SPRING 
HAND HOL E TO CRANKCASE 
CRANK CASE.BREATHER/ 

CARBURETER - y /j 

ASPIRATION MANIFOLD 
Oil TANK 
ROD TO THROTTLE 
PUSHBUTTON /b*CARmf7fr 

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CLUTCH CASE 
GEAR CASE 

UNIVERSAL JOINT. 

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TORSION 7fOD 
RADIUS ROB 
WrERENTML CASE 
AXLETUD/MU 
EX. BRAKE AXLE 
REAR SPRING 


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RADIATOR 
STEERING ARM 
AXLE CAP 
'CAM GEAR CASE 
r«oM STARTimPOST 
HATER PUMP 
NLET FROM PUMP 
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SPARK ADVANCE 
OUTLET MANIFOLD 
STEERING GEARCASE 
CYLINDERS 
THROTTLE LEVER 
\RAKE PEDAL 
CLUTCH PEDAL 

^drake handlever 

T LECWE SPEED LEVER 
PARK ADVANCE 
'BRING WHEEL 
THROTTLE ADVANCE 
MUEFLER 

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ROD ra»BRAKE 
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AJNIVERhAL JOINT 

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BRAKE SHOE 
GASOLINE TANK. 















































































































































1 Every Boy's Mechanical Library 

AUTOMOBILES 


BY 

J. S. ZERBE, M.E. 

»» 

Author of 
Motors—Aeroplanes 


ILLUSTRATED 


NEW YORK 

CUPPLES & LEON COMPANY 

Co-pf a 





Copyright, 1915, by 
CUPPLES & LEON COMPANY 


/ 



/ 

APR 17 1915 

©CU397605 c 



CONTENTS 


Intboductoby. 

Chapteb I. Automobile Histoby and Development . 

Development of the Industry. The First Patent. 
Newton’s car. ' Watt’s Invention. Traction. Push 
legs. Power. Springs. Water Tube Boiler. The 
First Differential. The First Gas Motor Car. Gaso¬ 
line Car. Flash Boiler System. The Carbureter. Im¬ 
proved Structures. The Order of Development. Speed 
vs. Power. Lighter Vehicles. 

Chapteb II. The Fbame and Its Accessobies .... 
The Frame. Channel-bar Frames. How the Frame 
is suspended. Fore and aft Motion. Lateral Motion. 
Cantilever Spring. Shock Absorbers. The Axle. Live 
Axles. Dead Axles. Semi-Floating Axle. Full Float¬ 
ing Axle. Wheels. Flexibility. Large vs. Small 
Wheels. Minimizing Shocks. Resiliency. 

Chapteb III. Tibes, Tubes and Rims. 

Tires. Solid Tires. Cushion Tires. Pneumatic 
Tires. Single Tubes. Double Tubes. The Outer Tube. 
The Inner Tube. Advantage of Double Tube. Putting 
on and Taking off Double Tubes. Damage to Tires. 
Repair to Tires. Vulcanizing. Oil as an enemy of 
Tires. Non-skidding Tires. Tires for City Use. Side 
slipping. Faulty Alinement. Broken Fabric. Bruises. 
Under Inflation. Stretched Tires. Blistered Tires. 
Rim Cutting. Inflation Pressures. Expansion of 
Heated Air. 


PAGE 

1 

5-12 


13-23 


24-36 






CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Chapter IV. The Steeeing Gear and Brakes .... 37-45 
The Steering Column. Motor Control. Throttle 
Movement. Steering Wheel Type. Steering Gear. 

Front Axle. Running Brake. Double-acting Con¬ 
tracting Brake. Contracting Brake. Equalizers. The 
Emergency Brake. Combined Service and Emergency 
Brake. 

Chapter V. The Differential.46-54 

The Meaning of Differential. Equalizing Bar. Un¬ 
equal Resistance. Balanced Equalizer Bar. Trans¬ 
mission Wheel. Action of Transmission Gearing. 

Chapter VI. The Drive.55-61 

Power Transmitted to Wheels through Springs. Il¬ 
lustrating power transmission. Torsion Rod. The 
Torque Tube. Radius Rod. Chain Drive. Jack Shaft. 
Objections to Chains. Shaft Drive. Train of Shaft¬ 
ing. 

Chapter VII. Clutches . . . ..62-68 

Clutch Requirements. Frictional Contact. Cone 
Clutch. Compression Spring in Clutches. The Mul¬ 
tiple Disk Clutch. Its Construction. Disadvantages 
of Multiple-Disk Clutches. Care of Multiple Disk 
Clutch. 

Chapter VIII. Transmission, or Change Speed Gears . 69-89 
Transmission Leverage. Economy of Transmission 
Gearing. Types of Transmission. The Progressive. 

Low Gear. Intermediate Gear. High Gear. Reverse. 
Selective Type. Low Gear. Intermediate Gear. High 
Gear. Reverse Gear. Control Lever for Progressive 
Transmission. Operation of the Selective Gear. Selec¬ 
tor Bars. Shifting Lever. Speed Selectors. 3-speed 
Selectors. 4-Speed Selectors. An approved Type of 
Selector. Controlling the Selector. Using the Clutch 
and Selector. Planetary Transmission. Frictional 
Transmission. 





CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Chapter IX. The Motor .. 90-108 

Value of Fuel Utilized. The Waste. Water Ab¬ 
sorption. Engine Types. The Four-Cycle Engine. 

The Two-Cycle. Compression. Economy of Four-Cycle 
Engine. Valve Movements. The Ignition point in the 
Cycle. The Fly-wheel. Impulses in Four-Cycle En¬ 
gine. The Cylinder Case, and Connections. Piston 
and Crank Construction. Calculating the Efficiency. 
Pressures in Explosions. Expansion Line. Mean Effec¬ 
tive Pressure. The Two-cycle Engine. Foot Pounds. 

Work or Energy. Cycle of Operation. The Crank 
Shaft. Special Metal. Engine Troubles. Difficulties 
pointed out. Starting the Engine. Carbureter. Low 
Compression. Mixtures. Spark Plugs. The Weather. 
Drainage. 

Chapter X. Cooling Systems .109-117 

Air Cooling. Air-Cooling Devices. Water Cooling. 
Gravity System. Locating the Reservoir. Force Sys¬ 
tem of Cooling. The Radiator Connections. Radia¬ 
tors. Construction of Radiator. Operation of Radia¬ 
tor. The Pump. Pump Construction. Action of 
Pump. 

Chapter XI. Carbureters .118-132 

Carbureted Air. Composition of Gasoline. Gasoline 
Expansion. Requirements of a Carbureter. Evapora¬ 
tion. Air Saturation. Air Contact with Gasoline. 
Instantaneous Combustion. Compression. Compres¬ 
sion as a Mixing Means. Carbureter Types. The 
Spraying Carbureter. Dissecting the Carbureter. 

The Mixing Chamber. The Float Chamber. The 
Venturi Tube. The Inlet Valve. The Throttle Valve. 

The Secondary Air Supply. Automatic Admission of 
Secondary Air. Carbureter Adjustments. Special 
Points Concerning Carbureters. Thin Mixtures. 

Speeds and Mixtures. Surface Carbureter. The Float. 

The Oil Inlet. Securing Surface for air Contact. 





CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Chapter XII. Ignition Systems .133-158 

Seeing the Effect of Electricity. Action of a current. 
Amperes and Volts. Conductivity. Resistance. Gen¬ 
erating Electricity. Magnetic Field. Armature. Bat¬ 
teries. Metallic Couples. What Determines Voltage. 
Controlling Amperage. Dry Batteries. Cell Construc¬ 
tion. Connecting up Cells. The Series Connection. 

The Parallel Connection. Series-Multiple Connection. 
Storage Batteries. The Sparking Methods. Air Re¬ 
sistance. Make and Break Spark. The High Tension 
System. The Spark Plug. How Produced. The Mag¬ 
neto. Difference Between Dynamo and Magneto. Ad¬ 
vantages of Magneto. Different Kinds of Magnetos. 
Primary and Secondary. Igniters. High Tension Coils, 
Inductance. Constructing a coil. A Simple High 
Tension Sparking System. Condenser. Interrupter. 
Arrangement of a high Tension System. The High Ten¬ 
sion Connections. The Secondary Coil. Operation of 
System. The Spark Gap. Function of the Interrupter. 
Vibratory Coils. Operation of Vibratory Coil. Surg¬ 
ing Movement of Current. Timing Device. Contact 
Makers. The Contact Breaker. Sparking Plugs. 
Testing Plugs. Short Circuiting Faults. Short Cir¬ 
cuiting of Secondary Wires. 

Chapter XIII. Automobile Accessories .159-168 

Self Starting. Simple Type of Starter. The Dis¬ 
tributer. Lighting. Car Signals. Speed Signals. 
Mufflers. Exhaust. Construction of Muffler. Ball and 
Roller Bearing. Race-ways. The Three-point Contact. 

Wrong Constructions. Roller Bearings. Form of 
Roller Bearings. 

Chapter XIV. Running an Automobile .169-179 

Running Close to the Curb. The Middle of the 
Road. Community Regulations. Approaching Car 
Track. Coasting. Signs of the Road. Operating the 
Control. The Crucial Point. Clutch Pedal and Spark 
control. Neutral Position of Transmission Lever. 



CONTENTS 


PAGE 


Throwing in Gear. In Reversing. Quick Stops. Ease 
in Manipulating Progressive System. Wiring for 
Lighting System. Wiring up for Ignition. 

Chapter XV. Fuel and Lubricants .180-190 

An Experiment with Gasoline. Air Necessary for 
Explosion. Making an Explosive Mixture. Gun¬ 
powder. Filled Tank not Explosive. Why Gasoline 
will not Burn Within a closed Tank. Filling Tanks 
having Dried out Gasoline. To Extinguish Gasoline 
Fires. Ammonia as an Extinguisher. Leaks. Lubri¬ 
cants. Viscosity. Carbonization. Acid in Lubricants. 
Composition of Lubricants. Grease. Graphite. The 
Test for Cylinder Lubricants. Fire Test. Lubri¬ 
cating Systems. Pressure Method. The Precision 
System. Combined Force, Feed, and Splash System. 

Chapter XVI. Care of the Car .191-200 

Regular Inspection a good Habit. The Brake Shoe. 
Familiarity with Working Parts. The Engine. Con¬ 
necting Rods. Valves. Cam Shaft. The Clearance. 
Clutches. The Clutch Leather. Rivets in the Leather. 
Transmission System. The Differential. Universal 
Joints. Steering Gear. Worm and Worm Wheel. 
Batteries. The Vibrator. The Electrolyte. Contact 
Points. The Magneto. Magneto Impulses. Timing 
the Magneto. The Carbureter. Wrong Adjustment. 
Weather. 

Chapter XVII. Electric Vehicles .201-214 

Requirements. Gasoline-electric Trucks. The Cur¬ 
rent Used. Mechanically-produced Electricity. Cur¬ 
rent from Batteries. Primary Battery. Secondary 
or Storage Battery. Reversal of Current. Charging. 

Time required, and Current. Troubles in Use. Over¬ 
charging. The Circuiting. Economy in Use of Cur¬ 
rent. Series and Parallel. The Connections. The 
Controller. The General Equipment. Accessories. 
Seating Arrangement. The Transmission. Brakes. 

Glossary 


215 







LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG. PAGE 

1. Views of Plain Frame . 13 

2. Quarter Elliptic ... 14 

2a. Half Elliptic . 15 

3. Three-quarter Elliptic . 15 

4. Full Elliptic . 16 

4a. Cantilever Spring . 17 

5. Fore and Aft Motion. 17 

6. Lateral Motion . 18 

7. Floating Axle . 20 

8. Semi-floating Axle. 20 

9. Crossing Depression. 22 

10. Striking Obstruction . 22 

11. Solid Tire . 24 

12. Single Tube . 25 

13. Double Tube . 26 

14. Illustrating Tire-removing Tool . 27 

15. Vulcanizer . 29 

16. Turning Action on Front Wheel. 31 

17. Illustrating the Strain on Fabric. 33 

18. Illustrating the Strain on Fabric. 33 

19. Effect of Flat Tire . 34 

20. Steering Wheel... 38 

21. Steering Gear . 39 

22. Type of Front Axle. 40 

23. Contracting Brake. 41 

24. Expanding Brake. 41 

25. Contract Mechanism . 43 

26. Equalizer Bar . 44 

27. Rear Axle. Service and Emergency Brake. 45 

28. Equalizing Mechanism . 47 

29. Resistance in Equalization . 47 

30. Equalizer and Differential Movements . 48 


































LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG. PAGE 

31. Differential in Housing . 50 

32. Section of Differential . 51 

33. Side View of Differential Wheel . 51 

34. Top View of Differential Wheel . 52 

34a. Differential Gears . 53 

35. Radius Rods . 56 

36. Torque Tube. 57 

37. Chain Drive . 58 

38. Shaft Drive . 60 

39. Straight Line Drive . 60 

40. Cone Clutch . 63 

41. Multiple Disk Clutch . 65 

42. Progressive Transmission. Low . 70 

43. Neutral Position . 71 

44. Intermediate. 72 

45. High . 73 

46. Reverse . 75 

47. Selective Transmission. Low Gear . 77 

48. Intermediate. 78 

49. High. 79 

50. Reverse . 80 

51. Progressive Control Mechanism . 81 

52. Selective Control Mechanism . 83 

53. 3-Speed . 85 

54. 3-Speed . 85 

55. 3-Speed . 85 

56. 4-Speed . 85 

57. 4-Speed . 85 

58. 4-Speed . 85 

59. 4-Speed . 85 

60. Control-Lever Bracket . 86 

61. Planetary Transmission . 88 

62. Frictional Transmission . 89 

63. Firing Position . 94 

64. Return First Cycle . 94 

65. Drawing in Charge . 96 

66. Compression . 96 

67. Automatic Inlet Valve . 98 

68. Calculating Efficiency . 100 









































LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG. PAGE 

69. Two-Cycle Expansion Position . 102 

70. Exhausting . 103 

71. Compression . 103 

72. Crank Shaft . 104 

72a. Increasing Cooling Area . 110 

73. Movement of Heated Water. Ill 

74. Cooling System . 112 

75. Radiator Type . 114 

76. Side View of Pump . 116 

77. Section. 116 

78. Carbureter Float and Needle . 123 

79. Carbureter Inlet Valve . 124 

80. Carbureter Discharge Port . 125 

81. Carbureter Secondary Air Inlet. 127 

82. Complete Carbureter . 128 

83. Surface Carbureter . 131 

84. Series Wiring . 137 

85. Parallel Wiring . 138 

86. Multiple Wiring . 139 

87. Dynamo Connection . 142 

88. Magneto .,. 142 

80. Induction Coil . 146 

90. High Tension Circuit . 147 

91. High Tension Connections . 149 

92. Vibratory Coil . 152 

93. Contact Maker . 154 

94. Contact Breaker . 155 

95. Starting Mechanism . 160 

96. Muffler . 164 

97. 3-Point Roller-Bearing . 165 

98. Wrong Bearing . 165 

99. Improper Alinement . 166 

100. Correct Raceways . 166 

101. Cage for Roller Bearing . 167 

102. Roller Bearing . 168 

103. Caution Signs . 171 

104. Wiring for Lighting Circuit . 175 

105. Ignition Wiring . 177 

106. Lubricating System . 189 

















































INTBODUCTOBY 


The building and development of auto vehicles 
form one of the most remarkable pages in the 
history of manufactures. The subject nearest the 
boy is the motorcycle, which is a direct develop¬ 
ment of the bicycle. From this to the larger 
power vehicles is but another step, so that in 
setting forth the structures involved the aim 
should be to show how one form of device grew 
out of the preceding one, and how each structure 
following in the train, became desirable and neces¬ 
sary. 

It would be impossible in a limited work of this 
kind to show the various modifications of all the 
elements which make up a complete structure. 

When these vehicles were first brought out, the 
mechanism was exceedingly simple, being, in 
reality, nothing more than the hitching up of some 
form of motive power with running gears. 

But now all that is changed. The old type 
steering mechanism was imperfect; the attach¬ 
ment of the wheels to the axles had to be modified; 
the wheels themselves entirely revolutionized; 
speed changing and reversing especially adapted 
1 


2 


INTRODUCTORY 


for quick and positive work; and even the easy 
starting of the motor had to be provided for. 

The entire equipment required a multiplicity 
of new devices, such as signaling apparatus, 
lighting systems, safety appliances, means to pre¬ 
vent skidding, wind shields, a reorganization of 
body and seating arrangement, and a reconstruc¬ 
tion of the springs and their attachment to the 
chassis. 

The electrical part has made as rapid strides, 
and in the development the sparking mechanism 
has approached perfection, and brought into ex¬ 
istence a wonderful variety of systems, so that 
each cycle of improvements has made them more 
efficient, hut simpler to construct, understand and 
use. 

It is a rare thing to-day to see any of the power 
machines dragged home by horse power. Not 
many years ago this was a common sight. The 
size, shape, and materials used, have been under¬ 
stood by scientific analysis and study, so that 
breakage, under ordinary uses, is not at all a 
common thing. 

It is the aim of this book to show in as simple 
a manner as possible how this wonderful trans¬ 
formation has been brought about, and to furnish 
one or more types of each element, properly con¬ 
structed and arranged, so that the boy may under- 


INTRODUCTORY 


3 


stand how each part is built, and the particular 
reasons for the structures. 

In no branch of manufactures can be found 
such a variety of technical designations as have 
grown out of this industry. By virtue of neces¬ 
sity, many of these names have been coined to 
suit the conditions. This knowledge is imparted 
in these pages, which contains a complete glossary 
of every term used in the art. 


The Author. 



AUTOMOBILES 


CHAPTEE I 

AUTOMOBILE HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT 

It is generally believed that automobiles origi¬ 
nated within the present century, this idea having 
gained currency because, until within the past 
twenty years, no practical machines were put 
on the market. 

Development of the Industry.— The develop¬ 
ment of the industry has been a peculiar one, in 
some respects. As early as the year 1275, Roger 
Bacon speculated on the possibilities of using 
steam, or some other form of motive power on 
wagons, for propelling them. 

This is remarkable, when it is understood that 
the steam engine, as constructed by Watt, was not 
invented until about 1780. Prior to Watt, steam 
engines were in operation, the valves of which 
were manually operated. Watt’s, energies were 


6 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


directed to making the valves work automatically, 
and in economizing the use of steam. 

The First Patent.— In 1619, two Englishmen, 
Ramsey and Wildgoose, secured a patent for 
“drawing carts without horses/’ and even before 
that time inventors in Germany had made vehicles 
which were propelled by powerful springs. In 
the Netherlands devices were constructed to move 
wagons by means of the wind. 

Newton’s Car.— In 1700 Sir Isaac Newton in¬ 
vented a steam car, in which he used Heros steam 
engine, and N. J. Cuguet, a Frenchman, invented 
a steam car which had some remarkable proper¬ 
ties. 

Watt’s Invention. —Later Watt invented, and 
was granted a patent, in 1784, for a steam vehicle, 
and twelve years thereafter, the first American 
patent was issued to W. Read, of Massachusetts, 
for a steam-driven automobile. 

These were followed by Symington, about the 
same time, together with Trevithick, in 1802, 
Evans in 1805, and Griffith in 1821. While numer¬ 
ous others contributed to the art, the foregoing 
were the pioneers. 

Evans has the distinction of being the first to 
build a combined boat and wagon; and Griffith 
was the originator of the body type which had 
cabins or apartments for the use of travelers. 


AUTOMOBILE HISTOBY 


7 


Traction.— Steam engines were in a fairly 
perfected condition two hundred years ago, and 
it has been considered remarkable that for over 
one hundred and fifty years no practical road 
device was brought out. 

The reason for this was not due to engine faults, 
but attributable to other things which were not 
understood at the time. One of these was the 
question of traction. 

Push Legs.— It was believed in the early history 
of the art, that some other means should be 
adopted for applying the power, rather than to 
exert it on the wheels; but as late as 1824 Gordon 
secured a patent for an improved form of 4 ‘push 
legs,” which stepped along and thus propelled 
the vehicle. This form of propulsion has been 
revived, in a measure, by the so-called ‘ ‘ caterpillar 
tractors,” in which the wheels are provided with 
feet, which step along, and are thus specially 
adapted for heavy trucks on soft roads or on cross 
country travel. 

Power.— One other difficulty was in the con¬ 
struction of the boiler. What is now understood 
as the water tube boiler was then unknown, hence 
they were made in such a manner that a large body 
of water had to be carried in the boiler, and this 
meant great weight to be transported. 

Springs.— Prior to the attempted introduction 


8 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


of steam, vehicles had springs, and the great prob¬ 
lem then appeared to find a type of vehicle which 
would permit the transfer of the power from the 
engine to the wheels, since the springs change the 
relative positions of the engine and axle. 

Water Tube Boiler. —From 1820 to 1840 was 
the great period of boiler development. The 
water tube type provided a means whereby consid¬ 
erably less than one-half of the water was required 
in the boiler itself; and in 1832 a motor drawn ve¬ 
hicle, having springs arranged for carrying the 
entire load, was devised by Dr. Church, of Bir¬ 
mingham, England. 

The First Differential.— Hills, in 1840, made 
the first differential. Before that time the power 
was applied to a single wheel, but in that year 
Dietz invented a form .of rubber tire. This, and 
the differential, made wheels the tractors for all 
time. 

But now a new era was ushered in. It was not 
a period of active work in the development of mo¬ 
tor-driven wagons, but the possibilities of using 
other than steam-driven vehicles was felt. 

The First Gas Motor Car.— In France, Lenoir 
was the first to devise a gas motor car. Com¬ 
pressed gas was used; and Ravel, in 1870, also 
produced a gas-driven machine. As early as 
1862 Gardner used a gas motor fed with carbu- 


AUTOMOBILE HISTORY 9 

reted air instead of gas, but the weight of the en¬ 
gine was against all attempts in that direction. 

Gasoline Car. —Markus, of Vienna, built a gaso¬ 
line car in 1877, and this was followed by Levas- 
sor, the engineer of Panhard and Levassor, in 
France, who used Daimler’s invention in the de¬ 
velopment of their car. Gottlieb Daimler, the 
father of the automobile industry, produced the 
first practical gasoline motor, his invention being 
based on the four-cycle type of engine. 

The invention of the gasoline, or the Internal 
Combustion Engine as it is called, was the first 
great advance. The weight of the fuel was so 
small, compared with the power produced, that it 
revolutionized the art. 

And now began that series of developments 
which embraced every part of the vehicle from the 
wheels to the top. At first the improvements were 
slowly effected, and many of them were most un¬ 
satisfactory. 

Flash Boiler System.— The flash system of 
using water in boilers, invented by Serpollet in 
France, for a long time kept even pace with gaso¬ 
line cars, in economy, and in ease of management; 
but now that system has been entirely driven out, 
and gasoline taken its place. This, in time, must 
make way for a still cheaper fuel, and one more 
easily handled, either through the crude oil itself, 


10 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


or from some cheap derivative of it; or, possibly, 
a spirit distillation, in the form of alcohol, which 
will take the place of the high-priced article now 
so universally used. 

The natural consequence of improvements has 
been to bring forth a multiplicity of devices, par¬ 
ticularly in the direction of more readily assimu- 
lating and using the hydro-carbon fuels. The ef¬ 
forts of inventors will now be in the direction of 
eliminating many of them. 

The Carbureter.— Heretofore the carbureter 
has been regarded as an essential element in every 
system. What a world, or, rather, worlds of 
troubles, hung about the carbureter. It was, and 
is, delicate, susceptible of the most minute adjust¬ 
ment, and in times past, before it had reached the 
present perfected form, was the bane of every 
motorist. 

A fuel, ignitable at a very low temperature, or 
capable of ready volatilization, has been consid¬ 
ered absolutely necessary to successful operation. 
Such is not the case now. 

Improved Structure.— The delicate parts of the 
operative mechanism are being replaced by strong, 
non-breakable forms, all of which tend to make a 
more perfect machine, and this, in turn, insures a 
greater demand for vehicles. 

The Order of Development.— In undertaking 


AUTOMOBILE HISTORY 


11 


any work requiring mechanical skill, and in which 
the action of cooperative elements is necessary, 
the uses must be considered. In a vehicle, the first 
element is the weight to be carried; then the 
strength of the frame and wheels necessary to 
maintain the load. 

Next should follow, in order, the power needed, 
and this entails a consideration of the speed ele¬ 
ment. These features are comparatively simple 
with a motorcycle; hut they are more complex 
with the automobile type, particularly as to the 
structure of the frame and the gearing and wheels 
which are to be operated by the motor. 

Speed vs. Power.— Thus, a motor exerting 
twenty horse power may run the vehicle at a maxi¬ 
mum of twenty miles an hour, and carry a load of 
fifteen hundred pounds; or it may have a maxi¬ 
mum speed of eight miles an hour, and carry 
three thousand pounds with equal safety. It will 
thus be seen that speed is just as important as 
power, in considering utility. 

Lighter Vehicles.— The tendency of the day is 
toward lighter vehicles, brought about, in a large 
measure, by improved materials in every direc¬ 
tion. It is no longer urged that heavy, ponderous 
machines are required to furnish stable and dur¬ 
able vehicles. 

Nothing can stop or retard this great industry. 


12 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


It is attractive to men and fascinating to boys. 
To acquire a knowledge of its “mysteries,” should 
be a part of the education of every young man. 


CHAPTER II 

THE FRAME, AND ITS ACCESSORIES 

Under this title should be included the frame, 
axles, springs, wheels, steering gear and brakes. 

From the beginning it was recognized that the 
different strains and stresses set up by the pass¬ 
ing of the wheels over uneven ground and by the 
motor and driving mechanism, must be taken care 
of before reaching the body of the automobile, 
which otherwise would soon go to pieces. 










& 



Jfty.J. Ifiew6 of jPlai/tTJame. 

The Frame. —Therefore, not only springs had 
to be interposed between the body and the wheel 
axles, but also a substructure for the body, called 
the frame, which must be rigid enough to prevent 
any destructive strains from reaching the body. 

In Fig. 1, A shows a top view of a frame made 

13 
















14 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


up of channel bars and B shows a side view to 
illustrate how the torsion or twist takes place. It 
will he understood that the frame thus made is not 
designed to lend itself to the entire inequalities of 
the road, as the springs are interposed for that 
purpose. 

Experience in the construction and use of tu¬ 
bular frames, as first employed in bicycles, proved 
too expensive for assembling, when used in auto¬ 
mobiles. The tubular form of construction was 
very soon displaced by frames consisting of metal 



QuarferUllipttc- 


parts bolted or riveted together. The main or 
side members are now usually made of channel 
steel which gives great rigidity and strength, com¬ 
pared with its weight. 

How the Fkame is Suspended.— The important 
feature is to mount this frame on the axle. The 
frame, carrying a body and all the load of the 
vehicle, has to permit three distinct movements. 

First. That due to the inequalities of the road, 
which produces a torsional twist. 

Second. A lateral swing, caused by traveling 




FRAME, AND ITS ACCESSORIES 15 


alongside a hill, or dne to centrifugal force when 
making a turn rapidly. 

Third. A fore and aft movement, as when trav¬ 
eling over undulating surfaces, or in suddenly 
stopping and starting. 



For these reasons springs must he made to com¬ 
pensate for such motions, and to absorb the jar 
as much as possible. 



The Springs.— Many forms of spring mount¬ 
ings have been devised, but the following illustra¬ 
tions show the types which set forth the principles 
involved. Outside of coiled springs which are 
used in some forms of delivery cars, the stand- 













16 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


ard springs are leaf springs, built up from a num¬ 
ber of steel leaves. 

There are four distinct forms of springs used, 
as follows: 

1. The quarter elliptic, used on Ford, and simi¬ 
lar cars, as illustrated in Fig. 2. 

2. The half elliptic, Fig. 2a, which is the most 
widely-used form. These springs are usually at¬ 
tached with their front end directly to the frame, 
and with the rear end by means of a shackle; the 
center is fastened by spring clips to the axle. 



Where a distance rod is used, as on the rear 
axle, both ends are attached by shackles. 

3. The three quarter elliptic, Fig. 3, always 
used as a suspension for the rear axle. This 
form gives more flexibility than a half elliptic, 
and is still stiffer so far as side motion is con¬ 
cerned, than the following type. 

4. The full elliptic, Fig. 4, was formerly used 
much more than at the present time. 










FRAME, AND ITS ACCESSORIES 17 

There are also in use springs comprising a com¬ 
bination of half elliptic, or three quarter elliptic, 
on each axle, in which the front end is shackled to 
the frame, and the rear ends connected by shackles 



to another half elliptic spring, the center of which 
is fastened to the frame. 

Fore a/nd Aft Motion . Provision must be 



made, in all cases, for the fore and aft movement 
of the car body which takes place in stopping 
or starting, and, particularly when the wheels 
strike an obstruction. 

Flues . Fig. 5 shows a side view of a car, in 
which the dotted lines indicate the position of the 



















18 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


body, relative to the normal, when the wheels 
strike an obstacle. 

Lateral Motion. In like manner when the car 
swings around a corner, or is traveling along a 
hill-side, the springs must hold the body from 
swinging too far. Fig. 6 illustrates, by means 
of the dotted lines, the side movement. It is ob¬ 
vious, therefore, that the springs have a duty to 
perform in addition to that of merely giving flex¬ 
ibility to the body. 



2 rr i/f.6. Za±ncLl Tnotion . 


Cantilever Spring.— A special form of half 
elliptic springs, lately developed, and of increas¬ 
ing use, is the cantilever spring, where the axle is 
attached to one end, the center of the spring being 
pivoted to the frame, and the other end shackled 
to or sliding in the frame. 

Shock Absorbers.— Shock absorbers are me¬ 
chanical means placed between the frame and the 
axles for the purpose of dampening the sudden 
recoil of the springs after being compressed, when 
meeting a road obstacle. In the absence of such 










FRAME, AND ITS ACCESSORIES 19 


a device the recoil is likely to suddenly throw up 
the frame, body and passengers, or produce an un¬ 
pleasant shock. 

Originally, simple leather straps were used, 
reaching from the body to the axle, which only 
limited, but did not dampen or gradually absorb 
the shock. Now different forms of frictional re¬ 
sisting toggle-levers are used, which not only ab¬ 
sorb the shocks, but also prevent the bumping of 
the axle against the frame, and eliminate breaking 
of springs. 

The Axle.— Axles are of two kinds, generally 
designated as ‘ ‘ live,’ 9 when they turn the wheels; 
and “dead” when they do not turn the wheels, but 
simply support the weight of the frame and of the 
body. 

Dead axles are used with double chain drive, 
as, in that case, the sprocket wheels are attached 
directly to the sides of the wheels and the wheels 
turn on the studs, or ends of the dead axle. 

Live Axles.— 1. Plain live axles originally con¬ 
sisted of a shaft without differential gearing, hav¬ 
ing one wheel fast on it, the other turning. Mod¬ 
ern construction shows two axle shafts in a hous¬ 
ing, the weight of the car, and the tooth pressure 
of the differential being carried by the axle shafts. 

2. Semi-floating axles have the weight of the 
car carried by the axle shafts, whereas the tooth 


20 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


pressure of the differential is supported by the 
housing, and only the turning effect or torsion is 
transmitted by the axle shafts. 



3. Full -floating axles carry the full weight of 
the car, and the differential bevel gear teeth pres¬ 
sure with the housing, so that the axle shafts carry 
no load but only the torsional stress. 


















FRAME, AND ITS ACCESSORIES 21 


Both full and semi-floating constructions are ap¬ 
plied to rear axles only. The front wheels are now 
universally applied to knuckles, which swing on 
vertical pivot pins at the ends of the dead axles. 

Wheels. —Wheels are now in a transition state. 
The ultimate wheel has not yet appeared; but 
whatever its form or construction, certain things 
are essential. 

Flexibility.— In the ordinary wagon or car¬ 
riage wheel, there is but little, if any, flexibility; 
but in automobiles, where speed is a consideration, 
elasticity, either in the rim, or in some other part 
of the wheel, is necessary. 

One of the reasons for this is, that on account 
of tire expense, motor wheels are smaller than 
carriage wheels. Making them smaller, however, 
produces certain disadvantages. One is that in 
going over the inequalities of the road, the axle on 
the small wheel has a greater vertical movement 
than on a large wheel, and the jar on striking an 
obstruction is more pronounced, also. These dis¬ 
advantages, however, are more than counterbal¬ 
anced by the elasticity of the invention. 

Large vs. Small Wheels.— Fig. 9 shows a large 
wheel A, passing over a depression B. The large 
arc of the wheel does not permit the rim to go to 
the bottom. On the other hand, the small wheel C 
goes to the bottom of the depression, and the ver- 


22 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


tical distance which the axle of this wheel must 
travel, is three times as far as in the case of the 
wheel A. 

In Fig. 10, where the large wheel strikes an ob¬ 
struction D, the angle of its upward movement, as 
designated by the line E, is much less than the im¬ 
pact force of the small wheel, as shown by the 
greater slope or incline of the line F. 

Minimizing Shocks. —It is obvious, therefore, 



that if part of this shock can he taken up by the 
tire, the difference due to the smaller diameter of 
the wheel, will not he so apparent. 

The thickness, or widths of the tires also mini¬ 
mizes the impact and distribute the jars while 
running, so that with these advantages a small 
wheel has been found to be more practical than a 
large one. 

Resiliency.— Most wheels are now made with 
wooden spokes, secured by means of a pair of 









FRAME, AND ITS ACCESSORIES 23 


metal-flanged hub plates, bolted together so as to 
clamp the radiating spokes, but wire wheels are 
now coming more into favor, whereas cast or 
pressed solid steel wheels are used on some heavy 
trucks. 


CHAPTER III 


TIRES, TUBES, AND RIMS 

Tires. —Three kinds of tires are now used, 
namely: Solid, cushion, and pneumatic. These 
forms all use rubber, or some compound with the 
qualities and characteristics of rubber, so as to af¬ 
ford a good tractive surface, as well as resiliency. 



3Pig.7f. -tiolid Tire, 


The solid tires are used on heavy trucks, 
where weight and not speed must be provided for. 

24 





TIRES, TUBES, AND RIMS 25 

Cushion tires are sometimes employed on cars 
and trucks of medium weight. 

Pneumatic tires, in which air is used, are uni¬ 
versally used in automobiles for all other pur¬ 
poses. 



The air is confined in two ways: 

First, by what is known as the “single tube.” 
(Fig. 12.) 

Second, by the “double,” or inner tube system. 
(Fig. 13.) 

The single tube is well adapted for light vehicles, 
or where great speed or weight are not consid¬ 
ered, and this type is now confined to bicycles. 
But it has certain disadvantages, namely: That 
of creeping, due to the impossibility of properly 
securing it to the rim of the wheel. Sand and grit 


26 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


are also liable to creep in between tbe tire and 
rim, and wear tbe material, thereby ruining it. 

The outer casing, or shoe, is split on its inner 
side, and usually provided with an annular flange 
on each side of the split, which rests against the 
rim of the wheel, and is adapted to receive a rim 
which securely fastens the annular flange of the 
shoe, to the rim of the wheel. 



Various ways are provided for holding the shoe 
to the rim of the wheel; but in the different types 
shown by the illustrations, Figs. 13 and 14, the 
shoe has a flange which is held within channels on 
the rim, or by some form of fastening device. 

The inner tube is usually of thin elastic rub¬ 
ber, so made that when properly inflated it will 
fit the outer tube or casing. The outer part, which 


TIRES, TUBES, AND RIMS 


27 


can be made of a different rubber compound, and 
is better adapted to stand wear, whereas, the in¬ 
ner tube, which is made of the best, and more 
costly material is protected. 

Advantage of Double Tube.— The great advan¬ 
tage of the double tube is due to the positive 
means of fastening it to the rim of the wheel, so 
as to prevent creeping. 

In the single tire construction the latter is liable 
to roll out of its bed where quick turns are made, 
but with the double tube this is not possible. 



Putting On and Taking Off Double Tubes.— 
To do this properly with clincher tires is quite an 
art. A pair of blunt, round-ended levers is best 
for the purpose. 

The practice is to use cold chisels, screw drivers 
and like sharp or pointed tools. This is bad prac¬ 
tice. A pair of levers, as shown in Fig. 14, can be 
made by any one, and you may be sure that their 
use will not be liable to jag a hole in the inner 
tube during the removal process. 

When the inner tube is put into the outer casing, 









28 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


or tire, as it is called, powdered talcum should be 
liberally applied, to the tube and also placed within 
the casing. The tube is then put in and carefully 
distributed and straightened out before the clinch¬ 
ers are put on. 

A little air blown into the tube will prevent it 
from being pinched under the flanges of the cas¬ 
ing. The spare tubes should be inclosed in a re¬ 
ceptacle of some kind which will exclude light, and 
protect them from beat. With the advent of the 
quick detachable rims of different forms these 
troubles have happily disappeared in the modern 
automobile. 

Damages to Tires.— Many things must be pro¬ 
vided for in the matter of tire keep. The thing 
most necessary to guard against is punctures, 
caused either by sharp stones, or nails. When a 
casing has a heavy protective tread the inner tube 
may not be effected, but it frequently happens that 
the outer casing is slitted for some distance, and 
the great pressure forces the thin wall of the inner 
tube into the slitted opening, and it is thus rup¬ 
tured, not on account of its being punctured, but 
because the outer tire did not afford protection 
against the pressure. 

Repairs to Tires.— It is not a difficult job to re¬ 
pair tires, and the apparatus for doing it is very 
simple. Rubber, in its natural state, is a white, 


TIRES, TUBES, AND RIMS 29 

thick, milky juice, which after several heating and 
refining processes becomes dark and sticky. 

Vulcanizing.— When in this condition and 
properly mixed with sulphur, it may be vulcan¬ 
ized, which destroys the stickiness, and makes it 
firm and elastic. Vulcanizing is a kind of baking 
process, the maximum heat being about 275 de¬ 
grees, but generally less. The time required is 



from 12 to 15 minutes, dependent on the thickness 
of the mass to be vulcanized. 

When the torn or cut portion of the tube or tire 
is carefully cleaned, it is filled with the plastic 
rubber, and the heater is applied. The heater, 
one form of which is shown in Fig. 15, is merely a 
shell with a heater connection, and this being 
partly filled with water, generates steam, the 
temperature of the shell being, of course, de¬ 
pendent on the pressure of the steam developed. 

To repair the inner tube, it should be first 





30 


AUTOMOBILES FOB BOYS 


rubbed with sand paper, and liquid rubber cement 
applied. When this becomes tacky apply the 
patch and dry. It is then ready to be vulcanized. 

Oil as an Enemy of Tires. —All literature on 
the subject of tires give warnings as to the in¬ 
sidious character of oil, which deteriorates the 
rubber. Most manufacturers now make an oil 
proof quality, but the cheaper grades are not to 
be depended on. 

The action of oil shows itself in several ways, 
but principally because it dissolves the rubber. 

Non-Skidding Tires.— Various means are pro¬ 
vided in the shape of tire treads to prevent skid¬ 
ding, the most important being vacuum cups, the 
herring-bone formation, and various ribbed or 
ridged surfaces. Nevertheless, for smooth as¬ 
phalt pavements, chains or similar substitutes are 
found most satisfactory. 

Sudden application of the brakes, or the slid¬ 
ing of wheels on hillsides or the skidding of the 
car in making short turns at too great speeds, are 
the most destructive things for tires, however good 
they may be. 

Tires For City Use.— A tire which may be of 
good service for country roads, might not be avail¬ 
able for city work. The tendency of many drivers 
is to hug the curb too closely, and the result is a 
wear on the side, which is its weakest point. It 


31 


TIRES, TUBES, AND RIMS 


is like the side of a shoe, the upper of which can 
be readily worn through, whereas the sole will 
stand hard usage. 

In country use the great danger is in the winter 
months, where the wheels must pass over or along 
frozen ruts. There the same difficulties of side 
wear are liable to destroy the best material. 

Side Slipping.— The same remarks apply to the 
weakness of tires due to side slipping. The fibers 



/6. Turning Action on T*iont Zi'he&l . 


of the fabric are ruptured at the weak point and 
the least external abrasion assists in destroying 
it. 

Faulty Alinement.— Another cause of rup¬ 
tured tires is attributable to improper alinement 
of wheels, due to the wheel being not exactly true, 
through a bent axle, or improper adjustment. 
This is more frequently the case with front than 
with rear wheels. 

It will be readily understood that while the rear 
wheels have the traction applied to them, the front 































32 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


wheels, fixed as they are, to the short turning 
knuckles, are affected by a-movement diagonally 
across the tire, at every turn which is made. 

This is shown hy reference to Fig. 16. The 
movement of the car is in the direction of the ar¬ 
row A, consequently, when the wheels are turned, 
the momentum of its forward end is in the direc¬ 
tion of the arrows B B. 

When the turn is to the right, the strain is on 
the inside of one tire and on the outside of the 
other, and when the movement is to the left the 
conditions are reversed in the stress, and this ex¬ 
plains why the tires of front wheels are so liable 
to yield, in all cases where turns are made at 
high speeds. 

Broken Fabric.— The fabric of a tire may be 
ruptured without giving any indications on its 
outer side. When there is a strong impact force, 
like a transverse ridge, which will force in the 
tire, several things occur. First, the body of the 
tire is flattened out so that it has a bulging cheek 
on each side; and, second, a strain is produced on 
the longitudinal fibers. 

Bruises.— The result of such a severe bruise is 
to cause a break, not transversely, or longitudi¬ 
nally, but usually, obliquely, for the following 
reason. The fabric has one set of its threads run¬ 
ning across the tire, and the other set around the 


TIRES, TUBES, AND RIMS 33 

perimeter. This arrangement of the fabric usu¬ 
ally prevents a straight break in either direction, 
and the weakest part of the fabric is across the 
diagonal direction. 

Try the experiment with a handkerchief, as 
shown in Fig. 17 by stretching it in the direction 
of the threads; and then look at Fig. 18, in which 
case the tension is diagonally, or across the cor¬ 
ners. This will be sufficient, probably, to suggest 



77. IlluMratthg ifte - 6/rain crt lhiric . ZYp.78. 


to your mind the reason for the break on diagonal 
lines. 

The rubber material is not sufficient to prevent 
the stretch which the fabric permits, hence the 
break follows. 

Under Inflation.— To permit a wheel to run 
flat causes a tire to stretch more on the tread than 
along the clinch line. 

Stretched Tires.— A good illustration of this is 







34 


AUTOMOBILES FOB BOYS 


shown in Fig. 19, where the tread is a succession 
of irregular wavy surfaces, whereas the sides re¬ 
main round and full. 

Many attribute this to poor or defective tires. 
The best tire in the market will show symptoms 
of this kind, if allowed to run when deflated. In 
such cases the flatness produces a continual pouch¬ 
ing out of the sides, which follow the wheel around, 
and tend to produce a creeping of the fabric. 

In time the rubber works away, or along on the 
fabric, until it becomes stretched at the tread, and 



all the pressure in the tire will not again restore 
it to the proper condition. 

Blistered Tires. —A blister is a plain case of 
the rubber being separated from the fabric. At 
first the injury may be a small cut down to the 
fabric, which, after being neglected for a time, 
permits sand to enter, and a grinding takes place, 
each movement of the parts causing a further 
separation, and pressure expands the rubber, un¬ 
til, finally, it bulges out and gives an unsightly ap¬ 
pearance, as well as starts the tire on its road to 
destruction. 








TIBES, TUBES, AND EIMS 35 

Such defects can he cured, if taken in time, as 
many compounds are on the market for this pur¬ 
pose. 

Bim Cutting.— This is caused by sand or sharp 
particles being forced in between the tire and 
edges of the rim, which causes a wearing out at 
the contact points. Insufficient air is another 
cause. The tires flatten and are then cut by the 
metal. 

Frequently the tire is too small for the rim, and 
this is always bad for it. Heavy loads will cause 
cutting, because the tire will be flattened out, al¬ 
though inflated to the proper tension. 

It is good practice to turn a tire, when one side 
wears more than the other. This wearing on one 
•edge excessively, shows some defect in the wheel 
alinement, which needs correcting. Possibly the 
wheels may not be parallel. This is a frequent 
trouble with front wheels, on account of the bend¬ 
ing of the arm which runs from the knuckle. 

Inflation Pressures.— Manufacturers of tires 
furnish data with respect to the proper pressures 
for their products, and these vary somewhat, and 
it is wise to observe the pressures which they in¬ 
dicate for the different sizes. 

Expansion of Heated Air. —There is another 
cause of tire expansion, not generally considered, 
which is due to the expansion of heated air. It is 


36 


AUTOMOBILES FOE BOYS 


not infrequently the case that a tire will, in run¬ 
ning, heat up fifty or sixty degrees, which means 
an expansion of one-eighth the volume of air 
within the tube. If, therefore, there is any weak¬ 
ness in the walls of the tire, a blowout follows. 

As this heating is liable to take place to a 
greater extent in the summer than in winter, it is 
obvious that it is better to under inflate during 
that period, than to have an over pressure, par¬ 
ticularly with old, or considerably worn, or injured 
tires. 


CHAPTEE IV 


THE STEERING GEAR AND BRAKES 

The Steering Column.— This is a very impor¬ 
tant mechanical element of the car. Its direct 
useful functions are to carry or hold the mechan¬ 
ism for steering the machine, and for the motor 
control, controlling the air supply for the fuel, as 
well as for regulating the sparking mechanism. 

Motor Control.— Some machines are provided 
with a foot lever mechanism (accelerator) as well 
as the throttle lever on the steering wheel. This 
is advantageous, because in moving through 
crowded streets, where frequent and quick 
changes are necessary, the foot is the most con¬ 
venient for controlling purposes. 

Throttle Movement.— A downward pressure of 
the foot opens the throttle, and a spring returns it 
to its normal position. The foot throttle is also 
convenient when shifting the transmission gear, as 
both hands are otherwise engaged, one to operate 
the gear-shifting levers, and the other for steer¬ 
ing. 

The hand throttle on the steering wheel, how- 
37 


38 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


ever, is most convenient for long runs, when little 
change is required, and it can then he set so as to 
avoid the use of the foot lever. 

The levers are so arranged that they do not en¬ 
tirely close the throttle, but, when fully thrown to 
a closed position, will still provide a sufficient 
opening to keep the engine running light. 



Steering Wheel Type. —The drawing, Fig. 20, 
shows a type of steering wheel, which has a seg¬ 
ment A. The long lever B is for throttling pur¬ 
poses, as above described, and the short lever C 
for operating the sparking device. 












STEERING GEAR AND BRAKES 39 


These levers are differently disposed and ar¬ 
ranged on the wheel, or on the column supporting 
the wheel shaft, but the illustration is sufficient to 
show the principle of construction, and we are in¬ 
terested only in the types and not in the modifica- 



2^. SI. fleering Gear 


tions which are available, and are constantly he- 
ing made to meet certain conditions. 

Steering Gear.— Fig. 21 shows an approved 
form of construction for the gear, which converts 
the rotating motion to a direct line movement. In 







40 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


this the hollow supporting column A, is firmly 
fixed to a base B. 

The shaft C which passes through the column, 
has a worm D at its lower end, and is journaled in 
a base E, which carries a cross shaft F, in which 
is mounted the worm wheel G. One end of the 
shaft F has an arm H for moving the arms of the 
wheel knuckles. 

Within the tubular shaft C, is a tubular shaft I, 



J? ’ig. £2. 1ZHJ23 jFton-6 t/Zile . 


for the throttle lever to operate, the lower end of 
which has an arm J, and within the shaft I, is a 
shaft K for the sparking lever, the lower end hav¬ 
ing an arm L. 

In the best cars all these parts are made adjust¬ 
able, so as to provide for wear. In examining or 
selecting a car, this is one of the points to note. 

Front Axle. —Fig. 22 shows a common form of 
front axle, with knuckles and cross connecting rod 
A, the latter providing means, by the nuts B C, for 
alineing the wheels. 

The Brakes. —These are made in two types, one 








STEERING GEAR AND BRAKES 41 


which is usually in the form of a contracting band, 
and the other which expands. 

All cars are now equipped with two braking sys¬ 
tems, one being the service, or running brake, and 
the other the emergency brake. These brakes are 
all of the drum type, and are either expanding, or 
contracting bands tightening against the drums. 



23 Contracting Brake : t £4. HxmJtxtoi e dmjtt 


Running Brake.— The running brake is opera¬ 
ted by the foot pedal, whereas the emergency brake 
is generally connected up with the lever at the side 
of the seat. 

The foot pedal is on some cars connected with 
the clutch in such a way that when pedal is pressed 
to set the brake, the clutch is released. This pre¬ 
vents an inexperienced or confused driver from 








42 AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 

a pplying the brake when he forgets to release the 
clutch. 

Double-Acting Contracting Brake.— Fig. 23 
shows the maimer in which a double-acting con¬ 
tracting brake operates. As the band A, has a 
tension on each end, when the rod B, is drawn for¬ 
wardly, it is immaterial which way the brake drum 
C travels. 

In Fig. 24 the drum C has a pair of oppositely- 
disposed shoes D, which are held in such a posi¬ 
tion that they are not revoluble, and may be moved 
outwardly by the lever E and links F. 

These figures, of course, show merely the simple 
forms of the two types, and do not go into the re¬ 
finements of construction which make them so ef¬ 
fective in service. 

It is obvious, however, that the power exerted 
through either type of brake, depends on the lever¬ 
age afforded by the relative lengths of the limbs 
of the bell-crank lever E, to each other. 

Contracting Brake.— Fig. 25 shows a well- 
known type of contraction brake, in which the 
cylinder A, has thereon two brake bands B C, 
hinged together at their rear ends. At their front 
ends they are connected with a bell-crank lever 
D, the forward movement of the upper end of the 
lever being such as to cause the bands to pinch the 
drum A. 


STEERING GEAR AND BRAKES 43 


A contractile spring E draws back the lever 
when the foot releases the pedal, and the link F, 
between the bell-crank lever and the upper band 
C, has a turnbuckle arrangement to provide for 
taking up in case of wear. 

The brake bands have means for automatically 
holding them clear of the wheels when not in use. 



Equalizers.— Sometimes the brake is placed on 
the propeller shaft; but when one of the brakes 
is placed on each wheel, an equalizing bar, or other 
means, must be used. One form of this is shown 
in Fig. 25, in which A is the bar, B the rod which 
goes to the brake lever, and C C, the rods that run 
back to the brakes on the wheels. 

Naturally, the equalizer will not act with the 






44 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


same effect on both wheels, unless they are in the 
same condition. Frequently one of the brake 
cylinders will be dry and the other coated with 
grease, or accumulate moisture from some source. 
It is, therefore, a necessary part of inspection and 
care to keep them in serviceable condition. 

The Emergency Brake.— The emergency brake 
has a pawl which acts in the teeth of a segment 
alongside of the lever, so it may be held in any 
position to which the lever may be thrown. This 




1 




<4 % 



C 



L — 





lever has no provision whereby the clutch is dis¬ 
engaged when the brake is applied, for the reason 
that should it become necessary to stop a car go¬ 
ing up hill, and when the emergency brake is re¬ 
quired, the brakes would have to be released be¬ 
fore the clutch could be thrown in, so that the car 
would be likely to start down hill before this 
could be done. On this account the emergency 
brake has no connection with the clutch. 

Combined Service and Emergency Brake.— 

























STEERING GEAR AND BRAKES 45 


Fig. 27 represents a standard type of service and 
emergency brake, each of the internal expand¬ 
ing type. As both are inclosed in a drum they 
are absolutely free from dirt and dust, and the 



construction shown eliminates rattling of the 
parts. 

The wheel bearing is also represented by the 
annular ball-bearing type of construction, in 
which the balls are unusually large, and therefore, 
capable of taking great weight and high speed 
without undue wear. 




CHAPTER V 


THE DIFFERENTIAL 

The Meaning of Differential.— This is a term 
used to designate the difference in the turning 
movement of two wheels on opposite ends of an 
axle. For various reasons they do not turn at 
the same rate of speed, particularly in turning 
corners, where the outer wheel must travel a 
greater distance than the inner wheel. 

If both wheels are fixed to the shaft the latter 
would be submitted to a torque, or one of the 
wheels would slip, and thus be destructive of 
tires. 

On the other hand, if one wheel should be loose, 
then, as power is applied to the shaft, the tractive 
action would be on one wheel only, and this would 
he had practice, and frequently cause the wheel 
to slip, and thus unduly increase the wear of the 
tire. 

The differential is made up of a system of gears, 
which are so arranged that one wheel may turn 
independently of the other, and at the same time 
the effective driving power is utilized hy each. 

46 


THE DIFFERENTIAL 


47 


Various forms of this mechanism have been de¬ 
veloped. While the differential is an exceedingly; 
simple piece of mechanism, it is not such an easy 
matter to describe its operation, so that the prin¬ 
ciple will be explained by a series of illustrations. 




Jf 


JF jE7petalijinp Ajecfrcin 


Equalizer Bar.— Examine Fig. 28. Let A be 
an equalizer bar, mounted on the end of a thrust 
bar B, by a pivot C, so the ends will swing back 
and forth freely. A horizontal bar D is hinged at 
each end of the equalizer, which bars project for- 



rf&Stifcirtce tn £p€ea7(fcita>n . 

wardly parallel with each other and these are pro¬ 
vided with right-angled bends E E, simply for 
convenience in describing the operation. 

While differential gears are very simple struc- 



















48 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


turally, it is not an easy matter to explain tlie 
principle on which a faster motion is transmitted 
to one wheel than another, and under conditions 
where the speed is constantly changing. 

For instance, in Fig. 30, a cord A, over a pulley 


f 2 3 



B, has weights C, D, at its ends. If the pivot 
or fulcrum E, of the wheel, is stationary, as in 
sketch 1, and the wheel is turned, say a quarter 
of the way around, one weight will move down 
below the line X the same distance that the other 
weight moves above it, as shown in 2. 

Thus far we have an equalizer, pure and simple. 














THE DIFFERENTIAL 


49 


But a differential requires something more. It 
is necessary, under certain conditions, for the 
weight D to move a greater distance in the same 
time than C, or the reverse. Or, as sometimes 
happens, one of the weights, as for instance, in 
3, remains fixed while the other moves. 

In this case, with the pivot pin E fixed, such 
a thing would he impossible, hence, in order to 
make such a relative movement between the two 
weights, the pin must move, and this motion is 
shown in 3, where it moves down from the line F. 
That movement, or change of position of the pivot 
E, is what takes place in the small intermediate 
gears in a train of differential gearing. 

Transmission Wheel.— In Fig. 32 is shown a 
section of the differential housing, 1, in which, 
for convenience, all refinements of construction 
are eliminated. This shows the divided axle 
shafts 5, 6. In Fig. 33 is shown a side view of the 
same housing. This may be connected with the 
motor shaft by means of bevel gears, or driven by 
a sprocket chain. In either case the housing 1 is 
the substitute for the thrust bar B, in Fig. 28, and 
the bevel pinions 2, which are mounted within the 
wheel 1, represent the equalizer bar of that figure. 

The gears which make up the train are usually 
put into a suitable casing, as illustrated in Fig. 
31, which gives a good example of the construe- 


50 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


tion. The housing A is fixed to the side of a 
large bevel gear B, this gear being designed to 
receive power from the motor through a bevel 



JF’ig. 31 Differential in 


pinion C. One part of the axle D passes through 
the gear B, and is fixed to a bevel gear E within 
the housing, and the other part of the axle F 
passes through the housing and is fixed to a bevel 
gear G, the same size as gear E. 

Intermediate the two gears is a pair of bevel 
pinions H, H, and these latter are mounted on 
pivots I, I, projecting inwardly from the housing. 














THE DIFFERENTIAL 


51 


The fact that the pinions are attached to hous¬ 
ing has the effect of complicating the matter, so 




that it may be well to show the relative arrange¬ 
ment of the gears without the housing. 

In Fig. 34 we have added to Fig. 33, two bevel 
gears 3, 4, which are mounted on the axles 5, 6, 





























52 AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


these representing the rear drive axles of the 
car. 

Action of Transmission Gearing. —From the 
foregoing it will be seen that the axles abut each 
other, within the hub of the large gear 1, within 
which they are journaled. We might, therefore, 
call these pinions the counterparts of the bars E 
E. 

As long as the resistance to the turning move- 




. 






3T 


34’ Top (/few op Uifferen&a/ iflfaeL ) 


ments of the pinions 3, 4 is the same, the housing 
through pinions 2, 2, will simply carry the bevel 
gears 3, 4 around with it, without turning them, 
just the same as the equalizer bar B was moved 
forward without either end swinging back or 
forth; but the moment the wheel of the shaft 5, 
for instance, is compelled to travel at a higher 
rate of speed, or the wheel on shaft 6 meets with a 
greater resistance, the small equalizing gears 2 
will turn, and the revoluble motion of the housing 
1, while transmitting the power, and also carrying 
the gears, will act, in effect, the same as the push 
bar shown in the previous illustration. 









THE DIFFERENTIAL 


53 


Like the equalizing bar, the effect is to turn one 
wheel, say 3, with less, and the other wheel 4 with 
more than the normal power or speed. 

Fig. 28 shows the principle on which all differ¬ 
ential automobile gearing is based, that is, that 
both wheels receive half of the driving power even, 
if one wheel should turn faster, as shown at Fig. 



29, which is the case when turning a corner. 
This is what causes the power to drive both wheels 
at all times, whether going straight or on a turn. 

If, however, one wheel gets on slippery ground, 
then A, Fig. 29, will move forward, without pull¬ 
ing on the lower end. As the lever A has the 
same action as the pinion in a differential, shown 
in Fig. 34a, it will be seen that if the pinion center 
is moved in the direction of the arrow, and if the 
wheel W 1 slips, the pinion will simply roll on the 
bevel gear Gr 2 without driving it on the wheel W 2 . 

This is the disagreeable characteristics of a dif- 















54 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


ferential, that makes one wheel spin when it 
touches a slippery spot on the road, and stalls the 
car, because the other wheels cannot get any driv¬ 
ing power. 







CHAPTER VI 


THE DRIVE 

The term used to designate the transmission 
of power from the engine to the wheels, is called 
the drive. 

In nearly all cars the engine shaft runs fore and 
aft, and consequently is at right angles to the 
axles. This, of course, necessitates some sort of 
gearing between the engine shaft and axle. This 
change is made in the bevel gear drive hereafter 
explained. 

As the engine is mounted on the frame of the 
car, which rests on springs, and the axle is below 
the springs, it is obvious that the drive must be 
transmitted between two parts which have a rela¬ 
tive up and down movement. 

This necessitates several things, structurally, 
which should be considered. 

First. A flexible joint must be interposed in 
the system, where a shaft is used to transmit the 
power. 

Second. Torsion rods are necessary to pre¬ 
vent the housing or casing of the rear axle from 

55 


56 AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 

turning, due to reaction of the driving bevel gear. 

Third. A rod, or rods, are required to prevent 
a fore and aft movement of the rear axle. The 
rods run from the ends of the rear axle housing to 
some convenient point on the frame. 

Illustrating Power Transmission.— For con¬ 
venience, these mechanical elements are illustrated 
on a frame. 



Fig. 35 shows a frame which has its rear axle 
provided with a pair of radius rods A A. These 
have their rear ends attached, in any suitable 
manner, to the axle housing, near the springs and 
the forward ends are brought forward and piv¬ 
oted to the cross beam B. 

Torsion Rod.— These rods thus take care of any 
undue strain which takes place by the wheel strik¬ 
ing obstructions. 

C represents the torsion rod which has its rear 
end firmly secured to the housing D, and its for¬ 
ward end to the cross piece E. This prevents the 
housing from turning, and also serves to provide 























THE DRIVE 


57 


against any undue thrust of the driving bevel. 

Some cars dispense with the torsion rod, by in¬ 
casing the shaft in a torsion tube. Such a form of 
construction is shown in Fig. 36. 

The torque tube A, as it is called, is rigidly se¬ 
cured to the housing B, of the rear axle, the for¬ 
ward end being pivoted to a cross piece C of the 
frame. 



The radius rods D D, have their forward ends 
attached to a sleeve E, located near the forward 
end of the torque tube A, and the rear ends are se¬ 
cured to the axle housing F at the spring seats. 

Some manufacturers avoid the use of these 
radius rods by such a construction in the springs 
as will prevent any forward and rearward move¬ 
ment of the axle. 

Chain Drive.— The chain drive machines re¬ 
quire the radius rods, or some other means to 
counteract the movement of the axle when it meets 
an obstruction, particularly where the chain 






















58 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


transmits the power to the differential on the 
wheel shaft. 

Jackshaft.— With the double chain drive no 
differential is used on the axle, but, instead 
thereof, it is placed on the jackshaft which carries 
the small driving sprocket wheels. The chain 
transmits the power direct to each wheel, and a 



radius rod is necessary to hold the shaft of the 
drive sprocket wheel the proper distance from the 
rear axle. 

Such an arrangement is shown in Fig. 37, in 
which the drive, or jackshaft A is mounted trans¬ 
versely across the vertically-movable frame B, 
and the torque bar C, therefore, serves as the 
means for keeping the jackshaft and the axle 
D the proper distance apart, and it is also ar¬ 
ranged to serve as a radius rod to prevent any 
undue tension on the chain when a wheel strikes 
an obstruction. 









THE DRIVE 


59 


The wheels of such a truck turn freely on the 
axle stubs of a dead axle. 

Objections to Chains.— Few pleasure cars are 
now equipped in this manner, as the shaft drive 
is more desirable for several reasons: The use 
of chains is always objectionable, as the efficiency 
decreases with wear quicker than the shaft drive, 
and requires the jackshaft, sprocket chains and 
sprocket wheels, besides the noise and excessive 
wear, by stretching of chains, which are always in¬ 
herent in the use of chains. 

It is impossible to prevent dirt, sand and grit 
from adhering to the chains, unless they are in¬ 
closed, a thing which is difficult and expensive. 
If they are not so protected the lubricant only 
serves to catch the grit and retain it, so that when 
it is carried around by the chain, the wheel and 
chain are both worn out. 

Another difficulty in the use of chains is due to 
the inability to keep them at a proper tension at 
all times. All chains will stretch in use, conse¬ 
quently the tension will change, and when wear 
takes place, the distance of the centers of driv¬ 
ing and driven sprockets has to be adjusted, call¬ 
ing again for another mechanical complication. 

Shaft Drive.— The shaft of the engine, being 
on the frame, has a vertical movement, and the 
axle, to which power is to be transmitted, is be- 


60 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


low. The engine mnst be mounted so the shaft 
inclines, or, be placed low enough, so that it will be 
on a direct line with the rear shaft. 

In either case some flexible means must be pro¬ 
vided between the engine shaft and axle on ac¬ 
count of the relative vertical motion between en- 



'ig. 88. 



gine and rear axle. The straight line drive is 
most desirable, in every way, as the full power of 
the engine is available, and this is usually ar¬ 
ranged for by lowering the engine bed sufficiently 
so that the shaft will point straight to the axle 
when the car is loaded. 

Train of Shafting.— Several lengths of shaft¬ 
ing are often interposed between the engine shaft 
and axle, and some cars have two universal joints 



















THE DRIVE 


61 


in the shaft line, one mounted forward of the 
transmission case and the other to the rear of it. 
Or, more frequently, one in the rear of the trans¬ 
mission and one in front of the rear axle. 

It seems, however, to be the most general prac¬ 
tice to have a single universal joint directly be¬ 
hind the gear case, and the shaft forward of the 
case only slightly inclined. 

Figs. 38 and 39, show the two types, the former 
being the straight line drive, and the latter a form 
of construction where the two universal joints 
make the drive through a line which minimizes the 
angles as much as possible between the shafts. 

Figs. 38 and 39 are not intended to show all the 
elements in the train of shafting, such as joints 
and connections, hut is merely designed to illus¬ 
trate the disposition of the drive shafting relative 
to the engine and rear axle. 


CHAPTER VII 


CLUTCHES 

Clutches are essential in all gasoline cars, for 
the reason that the driving power of the motor 
must be frequently disconnected from the running 
gear. 

These devices are designed to transmit motion 
from the engine to the transmission shaft, so that 
when the clutch is engaged the transmission shaft 
will turn with the engine shaft. 

Clutch Requirements. —The first requisite of 
a clutch is its ability to firmly hold the two shafts 
together; the second is, that it may be engaged 
gradually, and not suddenly; third, that it must 
disconnect instantaneously; and, fourth, that the 
force required to hold the two parts of the clutch 
together must not produce an end thrust on either 
shaft. 

These requirements must be met by a condition 
that the act of engaging the clutch will not necessi¬ 
tate a long movement of the foot pedal which sets 
the clutch. Other considerations must be taken 
into account, also, and that is facility for examin- 
62 


CLUTCHES 


63 


ing and repairing, easy removal of worn or broken 
parts, and capability of adjustment as the contact 
surfaces wear. 

It will be seen, therefore, that there are many 



elements necessary to provide a satisfactory 
clutch, well adapted for all purposes, and all these 
factors must be considered and understood by the 
boy who would be well informed. 

Feictional Contact. —In any form of automo¬ 
bile clutches, there must be a frictional contact, 




















64 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


which means wear, whatever may be the character 
of the material employed for the surfaces which 
are in engagement. As a result, clutches are now 
made which will permit the use of oil. Others dis¬ 
pense with it entirely. 

Each type has its advantages. The cone 
clutches usually do not use a lubricant. This is 
described in the diagram, Fig. 40. 

Cone Clutch.— In the drawing A represents 
the engine shaft, which has a fly wheel B, and C 
is the transmission shaft. The engine shaft has a 
short projecting stem D, which abuts the end of 
the transmission shaft C. 

A hollow hub E is loosely journaled on the 
stem D, and is of sufficient length to extend 
over and have a bearing on the transmission shaft 
C, this latter being squared so it will turn with 
the hub, or it may be provided with a feather to 
work in a suitable groove in the hub, so that both 
will turn together, while permitting the hub to 
move longitudinally. 

The inner end of the hub E has a web F, with a 
conical bearing surface G, which engages with an 
internal cone on the fly wheel. 

Compression Spring in Clutches.— Within the 
hollow hub E is a compression spring H, one end 
of which rests against the inner end of the hub, 
and the outer end contacts against a collar I, 


CLUTCHES 


65 


which, collar is screwed on the threaded end of the 
stem D, and by means of which the pressure of 
the spring may be regulated from time to time. 

The normal action of the spring is to throw the 
cone surface Gr, into engagement, as shown in the 



4/> J?i67c Clufcfo 


diagram, and when the foot presses down the pedal 
J, the hub is moved back against the tension of 
the spring, and the clutch released. 

It is obvious that if oil should find its way be¬ 
tween the cone surfaces the grip would be materi¬ 
ally lessened, and depending upon the kind of 
materials used. 

The Multiple Disk Clutch. —A type of clutch 










































66 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


which uses oil is shown in Fig. 41. The promin¬ 
ent feature of the multiple disk is the large area 
of contact surfaces available, and this, together 
with the comparative freedom from wear, owing 
to the lubricating material, makes it a favorite 
structure, especially on account of its gradual en¬ 
gagement which is not easily obtainable with a 
cone clutch. 

In the drawing, the transmission shaft A has 
its ends reduced to receive thereon a set of disks 
B. The shaft is ribbed along the surface where 
the disks are located, and the disks B have cut¬ 
out portions C, for the ribs, so that, while the 
disks must turn with the shaft, they are free to 
move longitudinally. 

The end of the engine shaft D, has a tubular 
housing E, to receive the end of the transmission 
shaft A. The inner end of this housing embraces 
the flange F, of a cylindrical shell G, this shell 
having within a series of disks H, secured to the 
shell so they will slide longitudinally, but turn 
therewith, and these disks alternate with the disks 
on the transmission shaft. 

It will be observed that the flange F, of the 
shell G, has a tongue I, which slides within a 
groove J in the housing, so that the shell G, while 
turning with the shaft D, may be moved longi¬ 
tudinally on the shaft A, a limited distance. 


CLUTCHES 


67 


The end of the shaft A, has a collar K, and 
between this collar and the end of the flange F, 
is an expansion spring L, so that the normal ac¬ 
tion of the spring is to push the web of the shell 
G, toward the disk head M, and thus force all the 
disks together and produce the friction of a very 
large surface. 

In order to release the clutch, it is necessary to 
draw back the shell G. The mechanical action is 
merely shown, not the exact structural arrange¬ 
ment. An annular flange N is formed on the 
head of the shell, and a pair of hook-shaped bars 
0, pass through the wall of the case, their outer 
ends being actuated by the foot pedal, in any con¬ 
venient manner. 

Disadvantages of Multiple-Disk Clutches.— 
These clutches have also their weaknesses. Some¬ 
times they will grip too quickly, if the lubricating 
oil is too thin, or if there is not enough of it; or, 
if it becomes very thick and gummy, the disks 
will not free themselves quickly, and the clutch 
will drag. 

Care of Multiple-Disks.— When such is the 
case, it is better to take out all the lubricant, and 
thoroughly clean off the disks, and put in a fresh 
supply. If the case is kept properly closed, so 
that the oils will not be wasted, and no dust can 
enter, a light, thin oil, will last for a long time. 


68 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


When the clutch slips, it is due to wear, or to 
insufficient spring pressure, and a new adjustment 
is necessary; and it is frequently the case that the 
rod between the clutch and pedal must be taken 
up, this being the case, usually, where there is any 
wear in the clutch itself. 

The disks are, usually, wholly of metal. 
Among other materials, cork is used to face fric¬ 
tion surfaces of different clutch designs, and a 
variety of materials are constantly added to the 
list, which have good wearing qualities. 


CHAPTER VIII 

TRANSMISSION, OR CHANGE SPEED GEARS 

Owing to the peculiar character of Internal 
Combustion Engines, there is always a certain 
speed at which it will work more satisfactorily, 
and with greater economy. 

In this respect it is unlike the steam engine, 
which has a much wider range of effectiveness. 
Since all cars now use internal combustion motors, 
and throttling is unsatisfactory, as a means of 
controlling the engine, or changing the speed and 
power, so as to use it economically, a mechanical 
speed change system is essential. 

This contains certain gears, which are designed 
to change the speed of the transmission shaft re¬ 
lative to the engine shaft. 

Transmission Leverage.— It is simply using 
leverage in order to produce a more effective 
pull, or to attain greater speed, from a shaft 
which runs at a certain number of revolutions. 

If we have a motor with a shaft speed of, say, 
800 revolutions per minute, and an axle with a 

69 


70 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


speed of 400 revolutions, tlie ratio would be 2 to 1. 
Now, to speed up the machine, so that the axle will 
turn 800 revolutions, would require an engine 
speed of 1600, which might be impossible. 

Economy of Transmission Gearing. —From an 



'u/. Progressive . .Zcto 


economical standpoint, also, it would be undesira¬ 
ble, even though the engine should be able to make 
the speed. 

Owing to the explosion impulses of the gasoline 
motor, a heavy fly wheel is necessary on the engine 
shaft, in order to store up power by momentum, 
and also to give a uniform speed. 

In hill climbing, or in carrying heavy loads, 






























TRANSMISSION 


71 


the transmission shaft must have its speed cut 
down, while permitting the engine to run at full or 
normal speed. 

The transmission gearing is, therefore, the most 
satisfactory solution of the problem, because 
changing the engine speed destroys its effective- 



3 7*0 6 zr?o/7 


ness, and we shall, therefore, consider some of the 
types for that purpose. 

There are two distinct systems of transmission, 
namely: The Positive, and the Frictional. Of 
the positive system we have the planetary and the 
sliding gear types. The sliding gear type has two 
methods of control, one known as the progressive, 
and the other the selective . 

















































72 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


Characteristics of Transmission. —The prog¬ 
ressive, selective and planetary types, are entirely 
different from the frictional system, for the rea¬ 
son that they effect the changes by step move¬ 
ments, the speeds being produced at certain 


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ratios, whereas the frictional method has indefi¬ 
nite and infinite ratios. 

The following diagrams will clearly bring out 
the distinctive features of each. Fig. 42 shows 
a shaft A, which derives power from the engine, 
having in line with it a shaft B, which connects 
with the driven shaft. The shaft B is squared, 
but it has a round end C, which is socketed axially 
within the head of the shaft A. 

















































TRANSMISSION 


73 


The Progressive.— Tlie head D has a small 
pinion E, and on its side is provided with project¬ 
ing teeth F. The loosely-revolving squared shaft 
B has thereon a pair of spur gear G H, separated 
from each other a trifle more than the width of 


D 

L 

J2 
r l 


& 

\ . 

\ 


-JZ 

JS 



\ 

\ 




\ 

_ 

n 

o 

i 


- IT 

U __ 

U u 




\ 

\ 

\ , 





—r 

\ * -tr 

\ M 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 



J£ rr i<7.4& JFigA . 


each gear, and they are united by an intermediate 
hub so they turn in unison. 

Below the shaft B, and parallel therewith, is a 
shaft J, which carries a spur gear K, that is con¬ 
stantly in mesh with the pinion E. To the right is 
a smaller gear L, which is the same diameter as 
the gear G, with which it is adapted to mesh; and 
a small gear M, about one-third the diameter of 
the gear H, is also mounted on the right-hand end 















































74 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


of the shaft, which meshes with the gear H, when 
the latter is moved to the right on its shaft B. 

Behind the two gears H, M, is a shaft N, 
parallel with shaft J, which is so mounted that 
it has a longitudinal movement, and this carries a 
broad-faced pinion 0, so that it is wide enough 
to engage with both of the gears H, M, when they 
are not in line, or in engagement with each other, 
as shown in Fig. 44. 

This latter shaft N, is moved longitudinally by 
means of the reversing lever P. This lever, to¬ 
gether with the gear-shifting lever, hereafter ex¬ 
plained, are merely indicated in their present man¬ 
ner, in order to show, diagrammatically, how the 
gears are shifted. 

Low Gear.— The gear-shifting lever Q, in Fig. 
42, in this instance, shows the large gear H, moved 
into mesh with the gear M, so that power is trans¬ 
mitted from the engine shaft A, through gears E, 
K, shaft J, and gears M, H, to the driven shaft 
B. 

In examining Fig. 43, it will be seen that the 
shifting lever I, has moved the gears G, H, so 
they are intermediate to the gears L, M. The 
mechanism is now at what is called the neutral 
position, which means that the engine drives only 
the shaft A, and the shaft J, through the gears 
E, K. 


TRANSMISSION 


75 


Intermediate Gear. —Now, when the lever is 
moved over another step, as in Fig. 44, the gears 
G L mesh together, and motion is transmitted 
from the gear E, to gear K, through shaft J, and 
gears L G, to the shaft B. 

This is called the intermediate, which in this 



46. ZLeveroe . 


size gears, drives the shaft at half the engine 
speed, or half of the speed of shaft A, for the 
reason that gears G L, are of the same diameter, 
and gears E and K are in the ratio of 1 to 2. 

High Gear. —When the lever is shifted another 
notch, as shown in Fig. 45, the crown teeth F G, 
of the respective gears E G, engage, and the two 














































76 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


shafts A B, are locked together, thus turning the 
two shafts in unison. This is called direct drive, 
in which case the shaft B, turns with the engine. 

Reversing.— When the car is not running the 
gears G H are always in a neutral position, as 
shown in Fig. 41, and in order to reverse shaft 
B, the lever P, is drawn hack, as shown in Fig. 44, 
so that the small gear 0, will engage with the 
large and the small gears H M, respectively. 
The result is, gear H, is reversed, and this re¬ 
versal can take place only when the two gears G 
H are in a neutral position. 

The term progressive takes its name from the 
motion of the control lever involved in changing 
the gears. It proceeds regularly from the lowest 
to the highest. 

Selective Type.— The second method, the select¬ 
ive, enables the operator to select any speed at 
will, and in doing so, it is not necessary to go 
through the other speeds to reach the high or the 
low, as is the case with the progressive. 

Where there are only three speeds forward, and 
one in reversing, this is not so material, but as 
the better class cars have four speeds forward, 
it means that in order to reach high the gear in 
a progressive system must go through two in¬ 
termediate speeds. 

The shaft B, Fig. 47, which connects with the 


TRANSMISSION 


77 


engine through a clutch, has its end journaled in 
a driven shaft A, and a gear C is fixed to the shaft 
B, and provided with a recessed side. This has 
internal teeth to receive the teeth of a sliding 



J* 7 -6elective T*? an6mUtton . JZocv gear . 


gear D. Another, smaller, sliding gear E is also 
on the shaft. 

Below the shafts A B is a shaft F, which carries 
a gear G-, about half the diameter of the gear C, 
with which it is constantly in engagement. This 
shaft, further, has a gear I, the same diameter as 
the gear D, with which it meshes, and the shaft 
also carries a gear K, smaller than gear J. 

Behind the gear K is an idler pinion L, in such 
position that it may be slid into contact with K, 


































78 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


and the gear E, on shaft B, is also adapted to be 
meshed with the pinion L by sliding contact. 

All the gears G I J K are keyed to the shaft F, 
and only the gears D E and L are capable of be¬ 
ing shifted. 

Low Gear. —Fig. 47 shows the gears E J in 


_ 

i 

u__ 

"“7- 1 

a 

-c 


D 

2 

A 

_ L. 















— 



r ■ 

i 

1 . 



y 









/ 

jr 

1- 


J 


K 


-4 8. TTit ter mediate 


engagement, and the motion is, therefore, trans¬ 
mitted from the shaft B, through gears E J and 
gear G to C, thereby giving a slow speed to the 
driven shaft A. This is called low gear. 

Intermediate Gear.— To change into the inter¬ 
mediate, the gear D, engages with I, Fig. 48, so 
that both shafts B F run at the same speed, but 
in opposite directions, since these two gears are 
of the same diameter. The selective mechanism, 




















































TRANSMISSION 


79 


as hereinafter explained, shows how this may be 
done so that the gear E, will also be thrown out 
of engagement with J at the same time. 

It will, of course, be understood that while the 
gears E J turn the shaft F in a direction opposite 
the shaft B, the shaft A is again reversed by the 


0 

X 


L... 

D 

2 

/ 

-2 

— *~\ 


















j 


- 


u 








L-7J 

Q 

jr 

1 - 



J 

K 


2^1^29 High 


gears G C, so that both shafts A B, turn in the 
same direction, but the shaft A, now turns at just 
half the speed of shaft B, because the gear G is 
only half the diameter of C. 

High Gear.— The direct drive, Fig. 49, is ar¬ 
ranged by connecting the two shafts A B together, 
and this is done by means of the teeth of the wheel 
D, engaging with the internal teeth of the gear C, 
so that shaft A turns with the engine. 
















































80 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


Reverse Gear. —The reversing engagement is 
brought about by putting the gears K L E into 
mesh with each other, as in Fig. 50, thus mak¬ 
ing the transmission from shaft B, through gears 
E L and K, shaft F, and hack to A, through gears 
GC. 


c- 

S 1 , 

..... 

• 

1 

i 

a 



2 

2 

f 2 

- ■'I 


i 









r 


,-r -- 

yX 

P ' 















cT 



JT'og. iJO. He\re?-46. , 


A four-speed selection transmission uses four, 
instead of three, gears on the driving shaft, with¬ 
out in any way changing the principles above out¬ 
lined. 

Control Lever for Progressive Transmission. 
—A careful study of the following mechanism, 
taken in connection with the accompanying sketch 
of the change speed gear, and the relations of the 
several elements, will explain the method now 












































TRANSMISSION 81 

generally employed in the use of the progressive 
type. 

The diagram, Fig. 51, shows the engine 1, with 
its shaft 2, connected directly with the shaft A of 
the transmission gearing. Intermediate the gear 



box and the engine 1, is a clutch 4, with which 
the foot pedal 5 is connected. 

The gear box has thereon a fore and aft sliding 
bar 6, the forward end of which projects through 
the case and is pivotally connected with the change 
speed lever 7. The lever has a quadrant 8, along¬ 
side, with four notches therein, for the low, in- 



























82 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


termediate, and liigli and also for the neutral posi¬ 
tions of the lever. 

The sliding bar 6, has an arm, the fork of 
which spans the hub I of the gears G H, so they 
may be carried in either direction when the speed 
lever swings to and fro. 

The reversing lever 10 may be connected up 
with a bar, similar to 6, but for convenience herein, 
we employ a vertical lever R, pivoted to a cross 
rock-shaft S. The lower end of this lever has a 
fork T to engage the collar of the shaft N of the 
idler pinion. The upper end of the lever is con¬ 
nected with the reversing lever 10 by a link U. 

The quadrant, alongside the reversing lever, 
has two notches, as shown, one being designed to 
hold the lever in a cut-out position, whereas the 
other notch is to hold the lever 10 when the run¬ 
ning gear is in action. 

Operation of the Progressive Gear.— The rela¬ 
tive arrangement of the parts gives a comprehen¬ 
sive idea of the mechanical ideas involved, and by 
referring to the description and illustrations of 
the gears, it will be seen how the change lever 7, 
in moving back one notch, from its neutral posi¬ 
tion, will throw the gear G into mesh with L, and 
another movement of the lever to the next notch, 
will cause the crown teeth on G, to engage with the 


TRANSMISSION 


83 


teeth on gear E, and thus effect a high gear con¬ 
nection. 

The Selector Mechanism.— This is more or 
less confusing to the novice, and the accompanying 
illustration, Fig. 52, shows a perspective view, in 



which some of the parts are drawn out of propor¬ 
tion, merely for the sake of clearness. The aim 
is to show principles and not details of exact me¬ 
chanical construction. 

Selector Bars. —The two selector bars A B, 
are mounted in guide ways so they move longi- 


84 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


tudinally alongside each other a limited distance. 
Each bar has an arm, as at C D, the end of each 
having a curved finger E to engage the annular 
grooves on the hubs of the shifting gears. 

Above these bars, and at right angles 
thereto, is a rock-shaft F, mounted in bearings G 
G, so that it is longitudinally-movable a limited 
distance, to shift the selector lever H from one bar 
A to the other bar B. 

Shifting Lever.— The selector I has two fore 
and aft slots J K, these slots being of such width 
that the gear shifting lever L can travel therein 
back and forth. Midway between the ends of the 
bar the intermediate wall of the selector plate has 
a cut-out portion as 1 at M, so the lever may pass 
through. 

This opening, or gate-way, is in such a position, 
relative to the cross lots N 0, of the bars A B, 
that when the lever is in line with the gate-way, 
the slots N 0 are also in line, and in a neutral 
position, so that when a lateral motion is imparted 
to the lever L, and the rock-shaft F is moved longi¬ 
tudinally, the selector lever H will then engage 
with the other bar. 

Speed Selectors. —The selector I, in Fig. 52, 
while made substantially the same in all cars, has 
a different order of lever movement. Each manu¬ 
facturer has his own preferential type. In some 


TRANSMISSION 


85 


cases the lever must be thrown forward in order 
to reverse, and in others it is drawn back. 

In certain cars the lever is moved forwardly to 
throw the gears into first, or low, while a number 



of makers insist that the first movement should be 
to the rear. 

This is, really, an immaterial matter, so long 
as there is no standard, and each claims some dis¬ 
tinctive feature of value for his particular choice. 

3-Speed Selectoks. —Figs. 53, 54 and 55 show 


















86 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


the 3-speed selectors, in each of which the reverse 
is brought about by moving the lever to the for¬ 
ward end of the selector. In Figs. 53 and 54 the 
lever slot, for reversing, is in the inside, whereas 
in 55 it is in the outside slot. The form 53 also 
has, in certain makes, the reverse at the rear end 
of the selector. 

4-Speed Selectors.— The greatest variety is 


FIRST SPEED 



found in the 4-speed types, represented by Figs. 
56, 57, 58 and 59, the almost universal plan being 
to place the reverse in the single side slot, as 
shown in Fig. 56. 

One of the most practicable and easily operated 
selectors is shown in Fig. 60, which is used on the 
Jeffery car. 

Controlling the Selector.— It will be seen, on 
examination of the selector, that if, in starting, 





TRANSMISSION 


87 


the lever is at its neutral position, as it should be, 
and it is moved inwardly the distance of about an 
inch, it will be in position where it can be moved 
forward to the first speed position. 

The clutch of the car may then be disengaged 
gently, by pressing the foot down slowly, and at 
the same time pressing the accelerator with the 
right foot, so as to increase the speed of the motor 
sufficiently to take care of the load. 

After the clutch engages and the car has 
traveled about ten feet, pressure on the accelerator 
is released, and the clutch pedal pulled down 
quickly, and the lever is then pulled straight back 
to the second speed . 

Using the Clutch and Selector.— For the third 
and fourth speeds the same course is followed. If, 
in hill climbing, or in going through a heavy 
stretch of mud or sand, lower speed is required, 
the clutch is thrown out, and, if traveling on fourth 
speed, the control lever is quickly pulled to the 
rear end of the slot, and then the clutch thrown in. 

If it is on third speed, the clutch is disengaged, 
the control lever pushed forward, at the same time 
pressing it inwardly so it will pass through the 
gate, and then pulling it back to the second speed. 

Planetary Transmission.— Fig. 61 shows the 
general arrangement of the planetary transmis¬ 
sion. The disk A, carries four small planet gears 


88 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


B, B, B, B, the hub C' of which is attached to the 
transmission shaft. These four planet wheels 
mesh with and travel around a central gear C, of 



the same diameter this gear being attached to the 
engine shaft D. 

E is a loosely-revolving drum, with internal 
teeth, to mesh with the planet wheels B. The 
drum E, and the disk or planet wheel carrier A, 
are provided with braking mechanism so that 
either may he slowed down or entirely stopped. 







TRANSMISSION 


89 


For slow speed E is stationary; for high speed 
A and E revolve with the gear C; and for revers¬ 
ing A is locked by means of the brake. 

Frictional Transmission. —A single illustration 
will suffice to show the principle involved in Fric¬ 
tional transmission. Fig. 62 represents a driven 
shaft A, which receives its power from the engine, 



62. 3 r 'i'ictio7tal Tmn6mi66ion . 

and on which is mounted a friction wheel B, that 
is adapted to travel along on the shaft in front of 
a friction disk C, secured to the transmission shaft 
D. 

The shaft A has a spline E, and means are pro¬ 
vided at the end of the wheel B to draw it back and 
forth on the shaft, the slightest movement toward 
the center of the friction disk C serving to in¬ 
crease the speed of the driven shaft D. 



















CHAPTER IX 


THE MOTOR 

This is a subject so vast and comprehensive, 
that it will require most careful thought and at¬ 
tention in order to get a working idea of the prin¬ 
ciple. The greatest refinements are resorted to 
in the building and handling of engines, and more 
attention is bestowed on this part of the automo¬ 
bile than on any other feature for the following 
reason: 

Value of Fuel Utilized.— Not more than eight¬ 
een per cent, of the value of the fuel is actually 
utilized. The rest is waste. A gasoline engine is 
a heat motor,—that is, it derives its power from 
the expansion of the fuel, and this expansion is 
produced by the heat. 

Now the loss referred to comes about in this 
way: About 52 per cent, of the loss is taken up 
by the water which surrounds the engine cylinders; 
from sixteen to seventeen per cent, escapes at the 
exhaust; and fifteen per cent, loss is due to conduc¬ 
tion and radiation. 

The Waste.— The great waste, therefore, lies 

90 


THE MOTOR 


91 


in the cooling means, which must he employed. 
The temperature of the ignited gases reaches fully 
2200 degrees, which is over ten times the tempera¬ 
ture required to convert water into steam. 

Water absorbs more heat than any other sub¬ 
stance, so that this quality is utilized; but the 
water, if not kept in motion, when applied to such 
a highly-heated surface as an engine cylinder, 
would be converted into superheated steam, and 
would then be of no further value. 

Water Absorption.— This necessitates a con¬ 
stant and intermitting motion, so that the more 
rapidly, the water moves, the less it will become 
heated. At the same time, means must be pro¬ 
vided to cool the water in its circuit hack to the 
engine, and the most efficient means to accomplish 
this is to provide a radiator at the forward end 
of the machine. 

The circulating system, together with the radia¬ 
tor, will he described under their proper headings. 

Engine Types.— There are two distinct types of 
engine, one called the two-cycle , and the other the 
four-cycle. Cycle has reference to a period or turn, 
in which certain mechanical operations are com¬ 
pleted in regular order so to form a succession 
of events. 

The Four-Cycle Engine.— These events in a 
four-cycle engine require the crank to make two 


92 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


complete turns, the order being as follows: Start¬ 
ing with the explosion of the charge, the first ele¬ 
ment in the cycle, is the downward movement of 
the piston (expansion); second, the return of the 
piston to the upper end of the cylinder (exhaust); 
third, the downward movement of the piston, on 
its second revolution, and the drawing in of a 
fresh charge of fuel (suction); and fourth, the 
return stroke which compresses the fuel for driv¬ 
ing the piston down the next stroke (compres¬ 
sion). 

The Two-Cycle.— The two-cycle engine, at the 
explosion, sends the piston downwardly, and as 
the crank case and cylinder are connected up to¬ 
gether so as to form an air tight receptacle, within 
which the crank and shaft turn, the downward 
movement of the piston compresses all the gas 
which has been previously drawn into the crank 
case. 

When the piston reaches the extreme limit of 
its downward movement, it uncovers a port in the 
side wall of the cylinder, so as to afford an outlet 
for the gases of combustion, and immediately 
thereafter the piston also uncovers a duct that 
leads from the crank case, so that the previously 
compressed gases, as stated, rush in, and this in¬ 
ward movement of the fresh gas, also facilitates 


THE MOTOR 93 

the movement of the burnt gases at the opposite 
side. 

Compression.— When the piston starts on its 
return stroke, or upward movement, it compresses 
the charge thus received, and when the piston 
nears the upper end of its stroke the sparking 
mechanism again explodes it, so that the cycle is 
formed by the two operations, performed by a 
single turn of the crank shaft. 

This latter type of engine is not used to a great 
extent. It has the advantage that no valves are 
used, except the one at the inlet of the gas to the 
crank case, and no stems, push rods, cam shafts, 
or springs are required to control the movements 
of the fresh and burnt gases. Aside from that 
such engines weigh considerably less than the four 
cycle type. 

Economy of Four-Cycle Engine. —On the other 
hand, the four cycle is more economical, because 
there is more time for the admission of the fuel, 
and for exhausting the gases. Furthermore, it is 
obvious that in a two cycle engine more or less of 
the fresh fuel gas is mixed with and is discharged 
from the cylinder with the burnt gases. 

As the discharge of the burnt gases and the ad¬ 
mission of a fresh charge, is practically simultane¬ 
ous, the opening of the discharge is placed in the 


94 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


cylinder at such a point that the pressure of the 
gases cannot be utilized for the full downward 
stroke, as is the case with the four cycle type. 


THE FOUB-CYCLE ENGINE 



Valve Movements.— Before proceeding to ex¬ 
plain the engine in detail, the different valve move¬ 
ments of a four cycle cylinder are shown, and this 
will be of service in explaining the different parts 
as they are referred to. 

In the construction of engines, as will he more 
particularly pointed oufhereinafter, the inlet and 

















THE MOTOR 


95 


exhaust valves are usually operated by mechanical 
means, but certain engines are so constructed that 
the inlet valve is automatic in its operation, and 
the exhaust valve only is actuated mechanically. 

In the drawings, Figs. 63 to 66, inclusive, both 
valves are operated from cams on a secondary 
shaft, and in the first of these four figures the 
crank has just turned the point where the piston 
is at its highest limit, and is about to descend. 
Roth valves A B are closed, and the spark fires the 
charge, driving down the piston to its lowest limit. 

In Fig. 64 the crank is shown about to move the 
piston upwardly, and just as it turns the dead 
center the cam C, on the secondary shaft, unseats 
the valve B, through the stem D. As the piston 
moves upwardly, the burnt gases are forced out 
past the valve B. 

When the piston reaches the highest point in its 
first revolution, as shown in Fig. 65, the stem D 
drops off the cam C, thus closing the discharge, 
and immediately the valve A is opened by the 
cam E moving the valve stem F upwardly, and as 
the piston now descends, fuel is now drawn in un¬ 
til the piston reaches its lowest point. 

In Fig. 66 the crank is turning the dead center, 
and is about to move upwardly, and the cams G E 
are now both in such position that the valves A B 
are closed, and when the piston moves up again, 


96 


AUTOMOBILES FOE BOYS 


to complete the second revolution, the fuel gas 
within the cylinder is compressed, and ready to 
he fired the moment the crank reaches the posi¬ 
tion, shown in Fig. 63. 

The Ignition Point in the Cycle.— In prac¬ 
tice, the firing takes place before the crank has 



made the turn past the dead center, and this is 
called pre-ignition , when the spark is advanced 
too far to the left. The ignition should take place 
slightly before the crank turns, because it takes 
a small interval of time for the charge to burn the 
gases, and during this time the crank will have 


















THE MOTOR 97 

passed the dead center, and started on its way 
downwardly. 

From the diagrams it will be observed that two 
of the strokes, namely the first and the third, are 
downward, and the second and fourth are upward, 
and that the downward strokes take place during 
the admission and impulse, and the compression 
and exhaust while the piston moves upwardly. 

The Fly-Wheel.— As the impulse in this type 
can take place only at each second revolution, it 
is obvious that some means must be provided to 
keep the shaft moving during the two turns, and 
for this purpose the fly-wheel is utilized. 

Practice has found the multi-cylinder type the 
most valuable, in connection with the fly-wheel, as 
in employing two or more cylinders in line, a 
smaller fly wheel will be sufficient. 

Impulses in 4 -Cylinder Engine.— In such a 
case the four cylinders are arranged so the im¬ 
pulse will be at four different points of the shaft, 
and we may assume that the four cylinders in 
Figs. 63, 64, 65 and 66, show the relative positions 
of the four pistons in a four cylinder engine. 

The Cylinder Case, and Connections.— A cross 
section of a case and the relative positions of the 
various parts, is shown in Fig. 67. The cylinder 
A is provided with a water jacket B, so as to form 
a space C around the cylinder which has an inlet 


98 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


pipe D at the bottom, and an outlet pipe E at the 
upper end. 

The inlet valve F is in the head of the cylinder, 
and it is held against its seat by a tension spring 
G. The exhaust valve H is placed in a lateral ex- 



jV 6 7 JliifomcUic 7nle& Valve, . 


tension of the cylinder, in such a position that it 
is directly above the secondary shaft I running 
through the crank case. The stem J of the valve, 
is actuated by a cam K on the secondary shaft, and 
it is, preferably, made in two parts, the upper be¬ 
ing so arranged that it has a limited longitudinal 








THE MOTOR 


99 


movement independently of the lower part, and a 
spring is arranged so as to provide for longi¬ 
tudinal thrust in either direction. 

The crank shaft M has alongside the crank, a 
gear wheel N, which meshes with a gear 0 on the 
secondary shaft I, this latter gear being twice the 
diameter of the gear N. 

Piston and Crank Construction.— The piston 
is hollow, and the crank is located as close to the 
head as possible. This has two or more circum¬ 
ferential grooves, to receive packing rings. The 
rings are made of very hard steel, and are turned 
up slightly larger than the diameter of the cylin¬ 
der, and then cut across diagonally, so they may 
be sprung into place, and when in position they 
will bear against the inside of the cylinder, and 
thus serve to prevent the passage of the gases. 

Calculating the Efficiency.— The great prob¬ 
lem with every beginner is to know something of 
the power of the engine, and how it is determined. 
Considering that the boy knows nothing of the 
terms used to designate the step we shall try to 
make the following description as free from tech¬ 
nicalities as possible. 

In Fig. 68 a cylinder is represented, containing 
a piston A. B C indicate the limits of the stroke, 
and for convenience this space is provided with 
eleven marks to represent the pressure of the ig- 


100 AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 

nited gases at various portions of the travel of the 
piston. 

Pressure in Explosion.— When the explosion 
takes place, at B, the pressure will be, approxi¬ 
mately, 230 pounds per square inch of the piston. 
When it moves to the next mark the pressure has 
decreased to 220 pounds, at the next mark it is 


JB C 



68. Calculating JZfficienc# 

200, and so on, until, at the end of the stroke, op¬ 
posite C, the pressure is only 40 pounds. 

Expansion Line.— These figures represent the 
expansion line. It is now necessary to get the 
mean effective pressure, which means that we must 
know what the average pressure of the gas is in 
each square inch from B to C. 

Mean Effective Pressure.— This is obtained by 
adding together the figures given in the sketch, 
and the result is, 1530. As eleven pressures were 
required to produce this sum, it should be divided 
by that number, making the result 148, avoiding 
fractions, as we shall do in all the calculations. 













THE MOTOR 


101 


The figures represent that the mean effective 
pressure of the gases on the piston is 148 pounds. 
If this is multiplied by the area of the piston, and 
this result by the stroke in feet and the number of 
power strokes per minute, we get what is called 
foot pounds. 

Foot Pounds.— Assuming that the diameter of 
the piston is 5 inches, which, figure, if multiplied 
by 3.1416, will give its area as a little over 15 y 2 
square inches. Let us assume the crank is 4 
inches. This will give a power stroke of 8 inches. 

To find out how many power strokes there are 
in a minute, we must know the revolutions, and 
this being taken at 800, and a power stroke at only 
every other revolution, would mean that we have 
400 impulses, and each impulse traveled 8 inches, 
=3200. 

This represents inches, which must be converted 
into feet, so that we have 266 feet of power strokes 
per minute. 

First multiply the mean effective pressure on 
the cylinder, that is 148 X 15%, which equals 2294. 
Then, 2294X266, equals 610,204. This product 
represents foot pounds. 

Work or Energy.— A foot pound is the amount 
of work or energy expended in raising a weight 
of one pound, through a distance of one foot. If 
550 pounds should be raised one foot in one second 


102 


AUTOMOBILES FOB BOYS 


of time it would represent one horse power of work 
accomplished. If 550 pounds should be raised one 
foot in one minute of time it would be equal to 
550x60 = 33,000 foot pounds, and this would 
mean one horse power, or the work done in one 
minute of time. 

In our above calculation we have determined 



zg.60. 77m- cycle 77 xpan6 tost do 6 it {on . 


how many foot pounds we had in a minute of time, 
so that if we divide the foot pounds 610,204, by 
33,000, we shall get as a result, a little over 18% 
horse power. 

The Two-Cycle Engine.— The longitudinal 
shell A, Fig. 69, is separate from the crank case B, 
the latter being secured to the former by flanges 
and bolts, as at C. The piston D is of such length 
that when it reaches the limit of its compression 
stroke, as shown in this figure, it covers both the 
supply port E and the discharge port F. 































THE MOTOR 


103 


In its outward stroke the upper end clears both 
of these ports as in Fig. 71, the discharge port F 
being the first to open, as shown in Fig. 70. 



70. ?t g. 


Cycle of Operations.— The cycle of operation 
is as follows: The inward stroke, which is in the 
direction of the head of the cylinder, draws in the 
gaseous fuel through the valve G-, and at its out- 



7/. Comprc6^io?u 


ward stroke the gas in the crank case B is com¬ 
pressed, and the moment the end of the piston 
























































104 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


passes the inlet port E, the gas passes through 
the duct H into the cylinder above the piston. 

The burnt gases within the cylinder pass out the 
discharge port F, facilitated, in a measure, by the 
compressed inflowing gas. When the piston again 
returns, and passes the discharge port, the gas is 
trapped, and is compressed during the inward 
stroke of the piston. 

The Crank Shaft.— The most important ele- 



72 Cra?t7c-&7tafVr 


ment in the engine is the crank snaft. It is usu¬ 
ally made of a single steel forging, and out of this 
are turned up the crank wrists, the crank arms, 
and the hearings which are placed intermediate 
the different cranks. It is made extremely large 
to provide for any strain due to the fuel explo¬ 
sions, and it is the most difficult part of the engine 
to turn out. 

Special Metals.— Special metals are used by 
various manufacturers, and the sizes and struc¬ 
tural shapes are now so well understood that few 
of them break, although in the early history of the 



























THE MOTOR 105 

engine this was the weak and troublesome part of 
the car. 

Improper alining, in the case, and poor or faulty 
bearings, were responsible for many accidents, 
and now means have been found to overcome most 
of these objections. 

Engine Troubles. —When we come to consider 
the engine troubles, so-called, we shall find there 
are legions of them. In these days many of the 
troubles are easy to remedy, but to remedy them 
means that the causes of troubles should be under¬ 
stood. A physician cannot prescribe for a dis¬ 
ease until he has made a diagnosis. 

Sometimes the difficulty will be recognized by 
the symptoms, and is easily adjusted. But sup¬ 
pose the firing is all right, and the engine fails 
to pick up, and seems to be dying out, it may be 
attributable to several causes, either one of which 
would account for it. 

Difficulties Pointed Out.— If the engine seems 
to run down, and fails to pick up quickly, it may be 
due to water in the carbureter, or to a weak bat¬ 
tery, or to leaks in the water jacket that will ad¬ 
mit water into the compression chamber, or the 
trouble may be faulty compression. 

Other things should be looked up: The pump 
may be out of order, the connections loose, and 
thus permit waste through the leaks, or there may 


106 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


be a stoppage somewhere in the water circulation, 
or the water may be exhausted, or the gasoline too 
low or too poor for the kind of carbureter which 
you have. 

If anything is due to the engine itself, in the vast 
majority of cases, it is due to poor compression. 
The engine is too often blamed for faults which 
belong elsewhere. Nevertheless, it is well care¬ 
fully to examine the bearings, to look over the 
clutch, and the bearings in the line leading to the 
drive shaft. 

Starting the Engine. —In starting, some en¬ 
gines give a great deal of trouble, usually due to 
wrong adjustment of the sparking device. This 
should not be advanced too much. If the trouble 
is not at that point, it may arise from too weak a 
suction, or an obstruction in the carbureter itself. 

Carbureter.— At slow turning speed of the en¬ 
gine, the carbureter is very sluggish, because it 
must be started up from a condition of repose, and 
unless there is the best of compression, the suction 
will not be sufficient to dislodge or move the slight¬ 
est impediment which may be in the way. 

Low Compression.— Low compression arises 
from numerous causes. A carelessly screwed 
sparking plug; defective or partly blown out 
gasket in the cylinder head; loose, or partly open 
compression cock; a sticking valve; a rusted, or 


THE MOTOR 107 

defective inlet valve; leak in the combustion cham¬ 
ber ; or a worn or scratched cylinder. 

Whenever it is possible, the engine should be ex¬ 
amined to observe the condition of the piston 
rings. Sometimes the rings will break into small 
pieces, and these parts will wear the most percept¬ 
ible creases in the cylinder walls. When such is 
the case they will have to be taken out and lapped. 

Mixtures*.— Too rich a mixture has the effect, in 
many cases, of causing a deposit of carbon which 
is bad for the engine. It coats the walls of the 
cylinders, and is hard to remove. The applica¬ 
tion of petroleum and alcohol, if allowed to remain 
in the cylinder for some hours, will aid in taking 
it out, but removing the cylinder and scraping is 
the only safe method. 

The usual way to test the cylinders to see 
whether either misses fire, is to cut out all of the 
spark plugs except one, and then test that, and so 
with all the others in succession, and in this way 
the location of the trouble will be discovered. 

Spark Plugs.— It is also the case that carbon 
deposits on the plug points will become heated up 
to such a point that pre-ignition will take place. 
Over-heated cylinders may cause this, and in cer¬ 
tain cases, where the rotor arm wears, at the con¬ 
tact point, it leaves a trail of metallic particles 
over which the current will travel. 


108 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


The Weather.— Cold weather is often a serious 
check to the starting of an engine, the water 
jacket, or some of the piping may be frozen, or the 
lubricating oil may become too thick to render 
proper service. 

Drainage.— A careful operator will see to it that 
when the car is left all the^ water will be drained 
from the pipes and the water jacket and pump, 
and the parts can be dried out by running the en¬ 
gine for a minute or so, during the time of drain¬ 
ing, so as to heat up the parts. 


A 


CHAPTER X 

COOLING SYSTEMS 

Proper cooling is a necessary feature of all 
gasoline motors, otherwise the intense heat of the 
burning fuel would expand the pistons to such an 
extent as to prevent their free motion in the cylin¬ 
ders, as well as destroy the spark plugs, injure the 
springs, and make lubrication a difficult matter, 
if not impossible, by burning up the oil. 

Air Cooling. —Cooling was originally obtained 
by using air, which was blown against the cylin¬ 
ders; but this was not generally developed to a 
satisfactory degree except for small motors. 

Air does not take up heat readily, whereas water 
is the greatest absorbent known, and in the pri¬ 
mary stages of the art water was objected to on 
account of its weight, and for the further reason 
that the jacketing of the engine was considered a 
needless expense. 

One of the best known devices to increase the 
cooling capacity with air cooling, and now largely 
used in motorcycles, is to provide the cylinders 
109 


110 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


with a plurality of thin broad ribs, annularly-dis- 
posed, as shown in Fig. 72a. 

Air-Cooling Devices.—A highly-heated metallic 
surface actually repels such a subtile fluid as air, 
hence it is necessary to supply the cylinders with 
a blast of air, and also provide a greater cooling 
area, so that if the ribs themselves can be cooled, 



J:' 'ig 72.- /ncrea 6 in q cooim^r&x 

the temperature will be decreased in proportion 
to the enlarged surface thus provided. 

In using water this artifice is not necessary, be¬ 
cause it will absorb heat instantly along the sur¬ 
face in contact with the metal, and quickly change 
the heated particles in favor of the cooler por¬ 
tions. 

Water Cooling. —While heat will cause a circu¬ 
lation of water in a definite direction, for the fore¬ 
going reason, it has been found that, in practice, 
it is more practical to keep up the movement by 
mechanical means. 









COOLING SYSTEMS 


111 


This is done by a pump placed in the line of the 
circulating pipe, and usually so arranged that the 
cold, or coldest, water is forced into the circulat¬ 
ing area around the cylinders. 

Gravity System. —The natural circulation is 
founded on the principle of the well known law, 
that heated water will flow upwardly, hence, if a 



cylinder, such as A, Fig. 73, which has a water 
jacket around it, has its lower end connected by 
a pipe B, from the bottom of a water reservoir C, 
and the upper end of the jacket is provided with a 
pipe connection D, with the upper part of the 
reservoir, the water will flow from the bottom of 
the reservoir to the jacket, and from the top of the 
jacket to the reservoir, in the direction of the ar¬ 
rows. 

Locating the Reservoir. —This flow would be 























112 


AUTOMOBILES FOB BOYS 


materially increased if the reservoir should be lo¬ 
cated a considerable distance above the jacket. 
But in an automobile it would be difficult to use an 
elevated reservoir, and, furthermore, as means 



must be provided to cool the water, such disposi¬ 
tion of the reservoir would be still more impracti¬ 
cable. 

The area forward of the engine is the most 
available space for placing the water tank, and, 
especially for the reasons that the radiator itself 
may be utilized for inclosing the engine hood, 
and because the air, which is only partially heated 









































COOLING SYSTEMS 


113 


in passing through the radiator, serves to keep 
the space within the hood reasonably cool. 

Force System of Cooling. —Under the circum¬ 
stances the water should be caused to circulate 
by mechanical means, which, while it adds another 
operative element to the machinery, is nevertheless 
so much more effective that it is worth the care, 
attention and expense which are involved. 

The Radiator Connection.— In Fig. 74 a radi¬ 
ator, engine and circulating system are connected 
together to show the relative arrangement of the 
various elements, in which the pump A is placed in 
the pipe line B running from the lower end of the 
radiator C to the manifold D at the lower end of 
the water jacket of the engine. 

The upper end of the radiator is connected by a 
pipe E with the top of the jacket, and the pipes are 
thus so disposed as to be free of the other mechan¬ 
ism, and are all contained within the hood of the 
engine. 

A fan F, suitably geared to the crane shaft of 
the engine, provides a means for inducing an air 
current through the radiator whenever the engine 
is running. 

Radiators.— Much time and money has been 
spent in developing a simple and efficient type of 
radiator. As, of necessity, it must be made up of 
a multiplicity of parts, leakage is apt to occur, and 


114 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


while in the past most of the constructions de¬ 
pended on soldering together the various portions, 
it will be seen how insecure such a system of con¬ 
struction must he necessarily. 

Construction of Radiator. —In Fig. 75, is shown 
a front and a sectional view of portion of a simple 
type, which is made up of square tubes A, their 




□□□□□□□doddc* 

annaanaanonSr 



□□□□□□□□□□□□ 







ends being fitted into square holes formed through 
front and rear plates B C, and the tubes are so ar¬ 
ranged that there are small spaces D between the 
tubes. 

When water enters through the inlet tube E, it 
fills the spaces, and being cooled moves down¬ 
wardly, while the air rushing through the open- 
ended tubes, cools down the water over the large 
area thus afforded. 

All radiators employ substantially the same con¬ 
struction, the illustration given being merely to 
show the principle of the device. 

A drain cock G> Fig. 74 should be placed in the 














COOLING SYSTEMS 


115 


system below the radiator, in the pipe line B, so 
that water can be drained off from all the pipes, to 
prevent liability of freezing. The diagram shows 
the fan shaft connected and run by a belt H. 
This is not the best construction, as it is not a 
positive drive. Most cars are provided with gear¬ 
ing for this purpose. 

Operation of Radiator.— The water is thus car¬ 
ried from the bottom of the radiator to the water 
jacket space, and from the upper end of the jack¬ 
eted area to the top of the radiator, and used over 
again. 

More or less of the water is lost by evaporation, 
so more must be added from time to time, and the 
radiator should be kept as full as possible to get 
the best results. If the water level falls too far 
below the return pipe at the top of the radiator, 
the area of the heating surface and the decreased 
quantity of water exposed to the cooling surface, 
are likely to cause undue heating, or vaporization. 

The Pump.— A variety of pumps are used, but 
they are generally based on the principle of the 
turbine impelling system, or on centrifugal action. 
A type which utilizes both these principles is 
shown in Figs. 76 and 77, in which the former is a 
cross vertical section of 77 along line 1, and the 
latter is a central vertical section on line 2 of Fig. 
76. 


116 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


The device comprises a cylindrical shell A, with 
an inlet B, at one edge near the front wall, and an 
outlet C at the upper edge near the rear wall. 

Pump Construction.— Within is a revoluble 
tubular hub D, with one end E projecting, to which 
power is applied. A disk partition Gr is secured 
to this hub, midway between its ends, and on each 
side of the partition is a pair of oppositely-project¬ 



ing convolute blades, those on the inlet side, indi¬ 
cated by H, and the ones in the discharge side by 

I. 

It will be noticed that the blades H on the intake 
side are so disposed that their concave surfaces 
are on the advance sides while those in the dis¬ 
charge end of the shell have their convex faces in 
the retreating side. 


















COOLING SYSTEMS 


117 


Action of Pump.— The hub has inlet ports J be¬ 
low each blade, and discharge ports K between 
each of the blades I. When rotating the points 
of the blades H catch the water at the inlet and 
drive it inwardly through the ports J, from which 
it passes through the hub to the ports K, and is 
then violently thrown by centrifugal motion, and 
by the action of the blades I to the discharge open¬ 
ing C. 

Should the pump cease working there is always 
a free passage way for the natural circulation of 
water through the pump. 


CHAPTER XI 


CARBURETERS 

In considering carbureters it would be well to 
have an understanding of what is meant by this 
term. It is the practice to call the vaporized fuel 
from the carbureter, a gas; but this is a mis¬ 
nomer. It is not a gas, but a vapor, being merely 
air which is charged with smell particles of gaso¬ 
line. 

Carbureted Air. —It has been frequently termed 
also a carbureted fuel . This is a wrong term. 
What is meant is carbureted air , because the air 
carries the fuel with it, and is impregnated with a 
carbon charge. 

Composition of Gasoline. —Gasoline contains, 
approximately, 82 per cent, carbon, and 15 per 
cent, of hydrogen. This mixture of the two fuel 
elements requires about two parts of oxygen to 
one part of the gasoline, but as common air is only 
one-fifth oxygen and four-fifths nitrogen, which 
does not aid in combustion, it is necessary to sup¬ 
ply five times the amount of air, which would mean 
at least fifteen parts of air to one of the gasoline. 

In speaking of parts it must not be understood, 
118 


CARBURETERS 


119 


that reference is made to parts in a liquid form, 
but it is necessary for the gasoline to be put into 
the form of a gas, and this gas becomes the meas¬ 
ure from which we determine the parts. 

Gasoline Expansion. —If a cubic inch of gaso¬ 
line is converted into a gas, it will occupy a space 
equal to about one cubic foot, which means that it 
now has a volume, or bulk of 1728 cubic inches. 
Now, for every 1728 inches, there must be about 
30,000 cubic inches of air, in order to make a com¬ 
bustible fuel out of the mixture. 

Requirements of a Carbureter. —A carbureter 
is designed to do several well-defined things: 
First; it must be able to comminute, or break up 
the liquid fuel into infinitesimally small particles. 

Second; it must be able to properly mingle the 
vapor thus produced. 

Third; it should be so constructed that it will 
automatically check the inflow of gasoline, and 
prevent flooding, or waste of the fuel. 

Evaporation.— All liquids have the property 
known as vaporization, and will change their form 
into a gaseous state at ordinary temperatures. 
All solids will vaporize, if sufficient heat is ap¬ 
plied. But at the ordinary temperature, with 
which we have to deal, in considering the use of 
carbureters, air is the factor which facilitates the 
process. 


120 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


Air Saturation.— Gasoline, confined in a vessel, 
will vaporize up to a point where it completely 
saturates the air contained therein, and then 
ceases. If allowed to stand in the open air, it will, 
in time, entirely evaporate. This is true of water, 
also. 

It is well, in this connection, to observe another 
thing. If the same quantity of liquid is placed in 
two separate vessels, one very tall, with a small 
surface of air in contact with the two surfaces, and 
the other vessel very shallow, so it has a large sur¬ 
face in contact with air, the latter will produce the 
most speedy evaporation. This shows that con¬ 
tact with air is the factor of the greatest impor¬ 
tance in making a vapor. 

Air Contact With Gasoline.— The office of a 
carbureter is to provide the proper amount of air 
to the liquid fuel,—that is, up to that point where 
it can be utilized as a fuel to the best advantage. 
If a drop of gasoline, in one case is broken up into 
five hundred tiny particles, and in the other case 
into one thousand, it is obvious that in the latter 
case the air comes into contact with double the 
surface of the liquid than in the former case, 
hence will be so much more efficient, for the follow¬ 
ing reason: 

Perfect combustion is the desired object in the 
engine cylinder. The more nearly the vapor ap- 


CARBURETERS 


121 


proaches an impalpable gas tbe quicker will it ig¬ 
nite. Furthermore, the more intimate the air and 
the vapor are mixed the better will be the explo¬ 
sion or combustion. 

Compression.— The compression of the carbu¬ 
reted air in the engine cylinder performs certain 
very important things: When any gas is com¬ 
pressed the temperature is increased, the theory 
being that at each compression to one-half its 
volume, the temperature is increased double its 
former heat. 

If, therefore, compression in a cylinder reaches, 
say, 90 pounds, the heat set up is sufficient to in¬ 
stantaneously break up the small globules of gaso¬ 
line, and at the same time produce a more intimate 
unity, which tends to make a more efficient mix¬ 
ture than would be possible without the compres¬ 
sion. 

Compression as a Mixing Means. —It will also 
be understood, that compression permits the 
bringing together of a much larger amount of fuel 
at each charge than would be possible without it, 
so that the two factors, namely, the volatilizing 
action of the air, the mixing of the air and vapor, 
and the compression, all serve to mix together the 
elements which will produce an explosion when 
the proper heat is finally applied. 

Carbureter Types.— There are two distinct 


122 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


types of carbureters, one in which the gasoline is 
forced out through a very fine nozzle, and at the 
ejecting point is mixed with a current of air which 
passes to the engine cylinders, and this is desig¬ 
nated as the spraying device. 

The other form of construction depends for car¬ 
bureting the air on exposing a large body of the 
gasoline to a passing blast of air, and is called the 
surface type. 

The Spraying Carbureter. —As most cars now 
use the spraying system, that type will be con¬ 
sidered first. There is no special form of nozzle 
required to eject the fuel, and the distinctive fea¬ 
tures of the various designs has been to produce 
positive and regular feed and to assure the proper 
mixture at all times during the operation of the 
engine. 

Dissecting the Carbureter.— For the purpose 
of making each particular part of a carbureter 
clear and distinct, let us build up one, so that 
special attention may be directed to the various 
operative elements. 

A cored cylindrical casting A, Fig. 78, is pro¬ 
vided, which has a large opening in its lower end 
that is closed by a plug B. This plug has an up¬ 
wardly-extending tubular projection B'. The up¬ 
per end of the cylinder has a cap C, open centrally, 
and having an opening formed by a downwardly- 


CARBURETERS 123 

projecting tube D, and this has a contracted throat 
as at E. 

The Mixing Chamber.— The exterior of the 
downwardly-projecting cap tube, is turned up 
true, and fits into the tubular extension B'. The 
particular feature of this sketch is to show the ad¬ 
justment of the needle valve which admits the 
gasoline, and the relative position of the float. 



78 . Cct 7 'Zrureter jF^loa tr anc l j\eetfZ& 

The Float Chamber.— The circularly-formed 
chamber G, within which the float operates, con¬ 
tains the liquid fuel. The inner end of the plug 
B has a cross duct I, and centrally is an upwardly- 
projecting tubular extension J, the bore being flar¬ 
ing, as shown, and in this the needle valve K rests 
and is made adjustable at its upper threaded end. 

When the needle valve is raised, gasoline flows 






















124 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


through the duct I upwardly past the flaring ori¬ 
fice, in J, and air is permitted to flow in through 
the openings I around the central tube J, so that 
the air and gasoline meet above the upper end of 
the tube. 

The Venturi Tube.— The inwardly-projecting 
part E constitutes what is called a venturi tube, 
the upwardly-rushing air between the contracted 



A r 6g. Fs TCarbureter Tnle & UalVe . 

opening formed around the tube at this point being 
such that when the two fluids meet and spread out 
in the enlarged opening above, the particles of 
gasoline are not only broken up minutely, but are 
intimately mixed with the air. 

The Inlet Valve.— Now if this chamber G has 
at one side an extension, like L, Fig. 79, means 
may be provided for adding a valve to be con¬ 
trolled by the float. Within the extension is an 
upwardly-moving needle valve M, which is de¬ 
signed to close the duct which leads from the gaso¬ 
line supply. 










CARBURETERS 


125 


Between the valve and the float is the fulcrum 0, 
of a lever N, the short end of which engages with 
the upper end of the valve and the long end rests 
on the float H, as shown. The movement of the 
float above the predetermined point has the effect 



80. Cardureier JiscJr/n'fe. Port: 

of seating the needle valve M, thus cutting off the 
inflow of gasoline until that in the chamber G 
is drawn out so that the float descends and again 
admits a fresh supply. 

Thus far we have the fuel oil control, together 
with the manner in which the primary air supply 
is introduced. We shall now go a step further, 
and illustrate the mixing chamber, discharge and 
throttle. 




















126 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


The Throttle Valve.— Referring to Fig. 80 it 
will be seen that directly above the venturi tube 
described, is a space 0. This is the mixing cham¬ 
ber, which has an outlet P to the left, which con¬ 
nects with the engine cylinders. 

Within this tube is a throttle valve Q, operated 
by the throttle lever on the steering wheel of the 
car. It is simply a disk which fits into the in¬ 
terior of the conduit and is adapted to be turned 
by a stem R, on which it is mounted. 

While the lower inlets K are designed to supply 
the primary air for carburetion, it is found neces¬ 
sary to admit a secondary supply, and this should 
be taken into the mixing chamber directly in¬ 
stead of passing the tube which conveys the oil. 

The Secondary Air Supply. —The particular 
reasons for thus admitting the air may be ex¬ 
plained as follows: When the engine draws in a 
supply of carbureted air, more or less of a vacuum 
is brought about in the mixing chamber O. The 
faster the engine runs the richer will the mixture 
become, because the additional suction draws in an 
increasing quantity of gasoline, but the throat of 
the tube does not change, and the requisite, pro¬ 
portionate quantity of air does not follow, so that 
the mixture has too much fuel for the air. 

Automatic Admission of Secondary Air.— If 
the engine should be speeded up so twice the 


CARBURETERS 


127 


amount of oil is drawn into the mixing chamber, 
the additional suction will not, at the same time, 
draw in twice the amount of air. 

This necessitates a provision whereby the sec¬ 
ondary air shall be admitted automatically only at 
times when the suction exceeds the normal re¬ 
quirement, or to prevent too rich a mixture, which 
is explained by reference to Fig. 80. 



The extension S, on the right side of the shell, 
has an opening T, with a seat to receive a weighted 
valve, like a ball U, preferably reinforced by a 
spring V, which is capable of having its pressure 
on the seat regulated by an adjusting screw W. 

It will be obvious, therefore, that during the 
normal action of the engine suction, no air will 
enter the duct T; but when an undue vacuum ex¬ 
ists in the chamber 0, the ball valve U is raised, 





















128 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


and additional air is supplied to the carbureted 
air within the chamber. 

Carbureter Adjustment. —Each of these four 



elements has some particular method of adjust¬ 
ment, as will he more particularly noticed in the 
completely assembled carbureter, made up of the 
















































CARBURETERS 


129 


foregoing illustrations, in which the details are re¬ 
fined and shown as actually made in one of the 
well known types of carbureters. 

Fig. 82 shows the different parts arranged in a 
practical manner, in which the regulating arm for 
controlling the throttle, as well as the secondary 
air supply and the gasoline inlets are capable of 
being adjusted by special means. 

Special Points Concerning Carbureters.—A 
rich mixture is undesirable, except in the case of 
heavy loads and at slow speed, for various rea¬ 
sons. It does not burn quickly, or explode as 
readily as a lean one, and owing to the slow com¬ 
bustion the temperature in the engine cylinder re¬ 
mains high to the end of the stroke. 

Thin Mixtures.— On the other hand, a thin mix¬ 
ture will compress better and burn with greater 
facility, and at the same time heat the cylinder 
less than the rich mixture, to say nothing of the 
saving in fuel. It has long been recognized that a 
carbureter will not act uniformly with all engines. 
Some have better compression than others, and 
some have more efficient sparking means. This 
has a bearing on the character of the fuel deliv¬ 
ered to the cylinders. 

Speeds and Mixtures.— There is also a wide dif¬ 
ference in the performances of engines at high and 
at low speeds, as to the quality of the mixtures re- 


130 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


quired, so it will be seen that a carbureter which 
is capable of being controlled for all emergencies, 
is the one to select. 

Above all, the structure should be such that the 
valves can be easily taken out for inspection and 
repairs. It is impossible to prevent grit from 
finding its way into the gasoline, and it is astonish¬ 
ing how the smallest piece of fiber, finding a lodg¬ 
ment in a valve, will disarrange the entire power 
system. 

Surface Carbureter.— These devices depend 
on presenting as large an area of gasoline as pos¬ 
sible, and then conducting the air flow over the 
surface so as to take up the volatile hydro-car¬ 
bon. 

The Float.— Such devices also require a float 
to regulate the inflow of fuel, and the distinctive 
feature of construction depends on increasing or 
decreasing the area so exposed to the moving air 
column. 

Fig. 83 shows a well-known type of this char¬ 
acter which is a combination spray and surface 
carbureter. A U-shaped tube A, with the air in¬ 
let at B, and discharge at C, has a butterfly valve 
T> in its latter end. Below the U-shaped bend, is a 
reservoir E to contain a float F, vertically-mov- 
able around a central stem G which is part of and 
projects down from the U-shaped tube. 


CARBURETERS 


131 


Through this stem G is a duct H, the lower end 
of which communicates with the gasoline reser¬ 
voir, or float chamber, and the upper end has a 
small orifice leading to the U-shaped tube. A 



valve stem I is adapted to regulate the inflow of 
gasoline through the duct. 

The Gasoline Inlet.— At one side of the reser¬ 
voir is an extension J, within which is a verti¬ 
cally disposed needle valve K, seated in the duct 
I, by way of which gasoline is admitted. A lever 
M, pivoted at N, has one end attached to the float 
F, and the other end is in engagement with the 
needle valve K. 

















132 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


The float is so arranged as to permit the gaso¬ 
line to flow up into the U-shaped tube A, and form 
a small pool of the fuel before it closes the needle 
valve K. 

Securing Surface for Air Contact.— Directly 
above the oil inlet duct H, the U-shaped tube is 
contracted by a downwardly-projecting wall P, the 
object being to compel all the passing air to inti¬ 
mately come into contact with the gasoline pool, 
and thus take up as much vapor as possible. 

In this arrangement the suction of the engine 
does not draw up the gasoline from the reservoir, 
but all the energy is expended in moving air 
through the tube, and past the contracted throat. 

In starting the engine the float is momentarily 
depressed by the pin Q, and a drain duct R is pro¬ 
vided to prevent flooding of the tube A. 


CHAPTER XII 


IGNITION SYSTEMS 

The universal use of electricity as a means of 
igniting the fuel in gasoline motors, makes it 
necessary that the novice should know something 
of the fundamentals of the science. 

Seeing the Effect of Electricity.— While it is 
impossible to see a current, there are certain me¬ 
chanical devices which enables it to be seen by 
the effects produced on them. One of these de¬ 
vices is the armature which, if placed across the 
poles of a horseshoe magnet, will adhere to the 
magnet, by means of its magnetic pull. 

Another exhibition is the spark caused by sepa¬ 
rating the contact point of a conductor through 
which a current is flowing, causing a spark. 

Action of a Current. —The current flowing 
over a wire acts substantially the same as water 
flowing through a pipe, that is, the quantity is de¬ 
pendent on the size of the wire, just as in water 
where the diameter of the pipe determines the 
flow. 

Amperes and Volts.—-W ater may flow slug- 
133 


134 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


gishly through a pipe, or be forced through with 
great violence. So with an electric current. 
Pressure, therefore, expresses the second simi¬ 
larity in the two mediums. 

The quantity of flow in an electric current is 
called amperes and the pressure is designated as 
volts . 

Conductivity.— All metals conduct a current 
with greater or less facility. Silver is the best 
conductor, followed by copper. German silver of¬ 
fers a great resistance, and many alloys offer 
greater or less opposition to the flow. 

Resistance. —The length of a wire also serves to 
check the flow, and this may be overcome by en¬ 
larging the size of the wire, or by increasing the 
pressure, or voltage. 

Geneeating Electkicity.— A current may be 
generated by a dynamo, or by means of cells. 
The dynamo derives its motion from an engine, 
which turns, what is called, the armature past a 
number of magnets, called the field. The arma¬ 
ture contains a series of wire wrappings, extend¬ 
ing around from end to end, and the field is 
composed of metallic heads, each carrying a 
coil. 

Magnetic Field.— When these coils have a cur¬ 
rent flowing through them the heads become mag¬ 
netized, and have what is called a magnetic field 


IGNITION SYSTEMS 


135 


surrounding them and extending out some dis¬ 
tance, and the armature coils pass through these 
magnetic fields. 

As these wires cut the lines of force in the mag¬ 
netic fields, a current is set up in the armature, 
and as the armature windings are connected up 
with the lead and the return wires which transmit 
the current, it will he seen that the strength, or 
pressure of the current depends on the speed of 
the armature movement. 

Batteries.— The other method of generating a 
current is to use a jar of electrolyte, a liquid which 
may be either an acid or a salt solution. If cer¬ 
tain metals which are opposite to each other, are 
placed in this solution, a chemical action takes 
place, which results in producing current, and this 
may he shown hy connecting together the two 
metals by a wire outside of the jar. 

Metallic Couples.— Within the jar the solution 
serves as the conductor between the two metals. 
Copper and zinc are two good metal couples, in 
which zinc is the positive, and copper the negative. 
As zinc is readily eaten away by the action of the 
electrolyte, carbon is used instead. 

What Determines Voltage. —Each cell with 
the two metals, will furnish approximately two 
volts. It is immaterial whether the cell contains 
a pint or a gallon of liquid, or what the size of the 


136 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


plates may be. In any event the pressure will not 
be greater than two volts. 

Controlling Amperage.— But the metal plates 
may be made very large, or have a great surface 
in each cell. The greater the surface the greater 
the amperage, so that while each cell has only two 
volts, it may have a very small amperage, or it 
may have two, five, ten, or even more amperes 
flowing therefrom. 

Dry Batteries.— Instead of using cells with 
liquid in them, as the electrolyte, a dry cell is 
made which acts efficiently. This is usually made 
in the form of a zinc cup, within which is centrally 
held a carbon rod, and the space around the rod 
is filled with ground carbon and dioxide of man¬ 
ganese, and moistened with sal ammoniac. 

Cell Construction.— The zinc cell and the 
carbon have upwardly-projecting posts to which 
the wires are attached, and when thus made the 
top of the cup is closed with pitch, or some suit¬ 
able preparation to prevent evaporation and to 
retain the substances within, and the whole is then 
inclosed in a jacket, usually of pasteboard. 

Usually these cells give one and a half volts, 
and are very durable. This is, of course, a very 
low voltage, and it is necessary, for this reason, 
to use at least a half dozen, to operate the coil 
used in an ignition system. 


IGNITION SYSTEMS 


137 


Connecting Up Cells.— If we have a number of 
cells they can be connected with each other so as 
to get an additional voltage as well as greater am¬ 
perage. This statement must be understood in a 
definite way. Supposing we have six cells, each 
with an output of 1% volts, and an ampere flow of 
25 in each. Multiplying 25 by 9 makes 225 watts. 



We may connect up the six cells in such a way 
that we can get 

First: 9 volts, and 25 amperes, equal to 225 
watts, or, 

Second: iy 2 volts and 150 amperes, equal to 
225 watts, or, 

Third: 4% volts and 50 amperes, also equal to 
225 watts. 

In either case, you will see we have 225 watts. 
These three windings are designated as series, 
parallel, and series multiple. 












138 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


The Series Connection.— The illustration, Fig. 
84, shows the series winding. Here the positive 
wire B is connected with the carbon pole C, and 
the wire D, wired up with the zinc pole, E, the con¬ 
nections being made directly through each cell, 
to the outlet wire F. Now, as we have six cells, 
the combined voltage is 1 y 2 x6 = 9 volts. 

As, however, all the cells now act as one cell, the 



amperage is just the same as of one cell, namely, 
25. 

• The Parallel Connection.— Fig. 85 shows the 
parallel connection. Here all the carbon termi¬ 
nals A are connected together in series by a wire 
B, and all the zinc terminals C by a wire B. In 
this method the voltage of the battery is the same 
as that of a single cell, but the amperage is the 
same as that of a single cell multiplied by the 
number of cells, namely, 25 amperes X 6. 










IGNITION SYSTEMS 


139 


Series Multiple Connection. —The series 
multiple, Fig. 86, is so arranged as to form two 
distinct batteries, 1 and 2. Each battery is con¬ 
nected up in series, by means of the wires A, which 
join the carbon and zinc. In this way we have 
at one end a pair of carbon terminals which are 
joined by a wire B, and at the other end a pair 
of zinc terminals, joined by a wire C. 



If, now, these two wires B C are put into circuit 
with each other, as illustrated by the wires D, we 
shall have a form of battery which will have the 
voltage equal to the voltage of one cell multiplied 
by the cells in either battery 1 or 2. This is 1% 
volts X 3, equal to 4%. The amperage, on the 
other hand, is found by that of one cell multiplied 
by the number of batteries. This is 25 amperes 
X 2, equal to 50. 

This, if well understood, will enable the user, 














140 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


for instance, to strengthen a battery, where it is 
weak, by connecting it up in series multiple, in¬ 
stead of in parallel. 

Naturally, the cells in the series should be of 
equal strength and should be frequently tested, to 
find where the weakness is. If the combined am¬ 
perage is below' the minimum, considering the 
time it has been in use, it is possible the cause is 
due to a weak cell, which takes from others, in¬ 
stead of giving. This should be replaced. 

Storage Batteries.— The matter pertaining to 
these batteries is fully set forth in connection with 
Electric vehicles, in a subsequent chapter. 
Primary as well as storage batteries may be used 
for ignition purposes, the object being to obtain a 
form of battery which shall have a constant and 
reliable output, and give a reasonable service in 
point of time. 

The Sparking Methods.— Automobiles are 
equipped with either the low or the high tension 
system. Any circuit having a small voltage is 
termed low tension, to distinguish it from a high 
tension , or high voltage. 

When a current passes along a conductor, no 
visible effect is produced, unless the voltage should 
be too great for the carrying wire. In that case 
it will heat the conductor to redness and thus en- 


IGNITION SYSTEMS 


141 


able the eye to see it. The heat is thus caused 
by resistance. 

Air Resistance.— Air has resistance, the same 
as all other substances. It is, in fact an absolute 
non-conductor, so that with an ordinary current, 
such as is used for electric lighting, the separated 
ends of a conductor may be placed very close to¬ 
gether and the current would not leap across. 

Make and Break Spark.— On the other hand, 
even with the weakest current, if the two ends are 
brought into contact, and then separated, a spark 
will follow, due to the flow of the current which is 
interrupted at the breaking of the contact, and the 
effort of the current to keep on flowing through 
the wire. 

This is called the low tension system, or the 
make and break method of ignition, where the act 
of breaking the circuit produces the spark and ig¬ 
nites the charge. 

The high tension system , on the other hand, de¬ 
pends on producing a current of sufficient pressure 
to be able to make the current leap across the small 
gap w T hich is formed between the ends of the con¬ 
ductor. 

The Spark Plug. —The mechanical device with 
the separated conductor ends, where the spark is 
produced, is called the spark plug, and must be lo- 


142 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


cated within the cylinder of the engine. The gap 
is between the separated ends of the conductor 
within the plug, is usually about one thirty-second 
of an inch. 

How Produced. —The low tension may be pro¬ 
duced either by a primary or a storage battery, or 
by a magneto designed for the purpose. This 



requires some consideration of the meaning and 
construction of a magneto. 

The Magneto.— This device is simply a dynamo, 
structurally, hut it differs in this respect: What 
is called the field, or the cores around which the 
wires of the field are wound, are made of perma¬ 
nent magnets. The ordinary dynamo has merely 
soft iron, which is demagnetized as soon as the 
current ceases to flow in the field windings. 





















IGNITION SYSTEMS 


143 


The permanent magnet cores are made of hard¬ 
ened steel, the same as is done with horse shoe 
magnets, and others of that class, whereby they 
are enabled to retain the magnetic charge. A 
dynamo must have its fields energized. 

Difference Between Dynamo and Magneto.— 
Fig. 87 will give an idea of the difference between 
the two. In the dynamo the pole pieces A of the 
field have the ends of their windings B connected 
to the brushes C, and the circuit wires D for the 
electric lights are connected with the brushes. 

On the other hand, the magneto with its field 1 
of a permanent magnet, the armature 2 is in a 
permanent magnetic field, so that the current can 
be taken directly from the brushes 3 by the wires 
4, as in Fig. 88. 

Advantages of Magneto. —Owing to the perma¬ 
nent magnetized character of the field, it operates 
more satisfactory for ignition purposes on an 
automobile than a regular type of dynamo. The 
dynamo should be driven at a regular speed, 
whereas the magneto can be driven at any speed, 
as it is not self regulating, like the magneto. 
However, dynamos are used for the purpose, but 
in that case they are provided with mechanical 
means for giving them a regular motion. 

Different Kinds of Magnetos. —There are two 
general types of magnetos; first those which have 


144 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


rotating armature; and second, those with sta¬ 
tionary armatures and revolving inductors. The 
high tension type is provided with a self-contained 
coil, or it may have a high tension coil separate 
from the magneto. 

The low tension magneto has an armature of 
fairly thick wire, one end of the wire being 
grounded to the armature core and the other con¬ 
nected with a terminal which is insulated from the 
magneto. From these two points the current is 
distributed. 

In the high tension magneto two coils are neces¬ 
sary, one called the primary , and the other the 
secondary. The primary generates a low pres¬ 
sure current, and the secondary a high tension, 
and the spark is produced by the latter. 

Igniters.— In the low tension system an igniter 
must be placed in the head of the engine cylinder 
which will mechanically make and break the cir¬ 
cuit; hut in the high tension device a spark plug 
is available, the points of which are stationary and 
in close contact with each other. 

For the foregoing reasons, therefore, while the 
low tension is very simple so far as the wiring is 
concerned, the mechanical devices necessary to 
make and break, are somewhat difficult and com¬ 
plicated. The high tension wiring is much more 


IGNITION SYSTEMS 


145 


complex, but it has the advantage that no mechan¬ 
ism is necessary in the engine except the spark 
plug. 

High Tension Coils.— Before proceeding to an 
explanation of the systems referred to, we shall 
explain the action and operation of the high ten¬ 
sion coils. These coils depend for their action on 
what is called inductance . Suppose two wires lie 
side by side, but not touching each other, and a 
current of electricity is sent through one of these 
wires, which we will call the primary, the other, 
called the secondary, will take a current from the 
primary. If the wires are the same size, and of 
the same material, the current in the two wires 
will be of substantially the same potentiality . 
By this is meant that they will have the same 
amperage and voltage. 

Inductance. —But assuming that the primary 
wire is larger than the secondary, then the current 
carried by inductance across the space between 
the two wires will be changed in the secondary 
so that it has a larger voltage, but a correspond¬ 
ingly lower amperage. This is what high tension 
means. 

The convenient way to arrange these wires 
parallel with each other, is to wind the two differ¬ 
ent size wires on the same core, in which the 


146 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


coarse wire, which forms the primary, is first 
wound around the core, and on this is wound the 
fine wire. 

Constructing a Coil.— Such a coil is shown in 
section in Fig. 89, in which the core A is a hard 
rubber or fiber tube, with disk ends B of the same 
material. The primary wire C is large in cross 
section, and carefully insulated. The opposite 
ends are brought out through the disk heads, and 



run to the generator, that is, the battery or 
dynamo. The fine wire D, which constitutes the 
secondary winding, is also of insulated wire, 
wrapped over the primary, and its ends are con¬ 
nected up with the sparking mechanism, as will 
he more fully explained hereinafter. 

A Simple High Tension Sparking System.— 
With such a coil, of proper size, and adapted to 
receive the required current, several things are 
necessary in order to produce a sparking effect. 









IGNITION SYSTEMS 


147 


Condenser.— One of these is a condenser, which, 
while a spark can be produced without it, is never¬ 
theless an important element. The office of a con¬ 
denser is to absorb a certain amount of current. 
It will be remembered that the drawing apart of 
the points in a conductor, produced a spark. 
Now in the secondary current, of the high ten¬ 
sion system, is an interrupter , a mechanism that 
makes and breaks the circuit continuously. 

Interrupter.— Whenever the interrupter opens 



JFVff' &O. TTentiion Circuit^ 


the circuit, the condenser absorbs the surging cur¬ 
rent produced by the break, so that it acts like 
a storage battery in the system. 

The interrupter may be made something like 
the mechanism of an electric bell, in which the 
current is interrupted as the clapper moves back 
and forth. 

By referring to Fig. 90 a comprehensive idea 
may be obtained of a high tension system for 
igniting the compressed fuel in a gasoline engine. 

Arrangement of a High Tension System.— 










148 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


Tlie dynamo A, or the battery, as the case may be, 
is connected np with the primary coil B, by means 
of the circuit wires C. The secondary coil D, 
which is, of course, wound around the primary B, 
in practice, has one of its terminals E extending 
to what we shall call the spark plug F. 

The other terminal G-, of the secondary coil, also 
extends to the spark plug F, there being, of course, 
a gap between the two ends of these wires in the 
spark plug. 

Now, close up to the secondary, D, is a condenser 
H, the terminals of which are connected up with 
the two wires E G, and between the condenser and 
the spark plug F, is the interrupter I. 

The High Tension Connections. —With this 
understanding of the action of the magneto, the 
accompanying sketch of a high tension system will 
be understood. 

The magneto A, Fig. 91, has on its armature 
shaft B, two distributer rings C D, which form the 
terminals for the two wires E F, which run out 
from the armature winding. C is connected by 
metallic contact with this shaft, and D insulated 
therefrom. Also, alongside of the ring D, is the 
interrupter wheel G which engages the finger H, 
and thus interrupts the circuit. 

Above the armature shaft, and parallel there¬ 
with, is a shaft I, turned at half the armature 


IGNITION SYSTEMS 


149 


shaft by means of the two gear wheels J K. On 
the end of this shaft is a finger J, revoluble there¬ 
with, and this engages successively with four con¬ 



tact plates K, each plate being connected with a 
spark plug in the engine, assuming, of course, 
that there are four cylinders in the engine. 

The ring C has its contact finger connected by a 
wire L with one end of a primary coil M, while the 
other terminal has a wire N which goes to one 
































150 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


terminal of the interrupter G. The other outlet 
of the interrupter is connected up with the con¬ 
tact finger of the other collector ring D. This 
contact finger also has a wire connection P with 
one terminal of a condenser Q, the other end of 
the condenser being connected with the wire N, 
running from the primary coil M. 

The Secondary Coil.— The secondary, or high 
tension coil R, has one end grounded, which means 
that it is connected up with the metal of the 
engine, and the other terminal is connected by a 
wire T, with the finger J on the distributer disk. 

In operation, we will assume that the current 
leaves the armature over the wire E; it has two 
paths, one through ring D, wire 0, and interrupter 
G, back to the other wire F of the armature; or, 
after passing the ring D it may pass over 0, to 
the interrupter, then through wire N, primary 
coil M, and wire L, back to the armature. 

Operation of System.— The revoluble disk of 
the interrupter G is so arraiiged that when the 
armature has the greatest current intensity it is 
opened by its turning movement, so that the cur¬ 
rent is compelled to take the last named course 
through the primary coil M, and at the same time 
a certain portion of the current is absorbed by the 
condenser Q. 

This intense charge of the current in the pri- 


IGNITION SYSTEMS 


151 


mary induces a high tension current in the second¬ 
ary coil R, and the result is that the current 
from the secondary goes through the wire T 
to the finger J, and from the finger J to the con¬ 
tact plate K, and to the particular spark plug 
which happens to be connected up by one of the 
wires U with that plate. 

The Spaek Gap. —The current in leaping over 
the gap made by the spark plug, goes through the 
engine metal to the other end of the secondary 
coil R, at the place indicated by S. 

It should he understood that the coils M R are 
in a separate box, and usually placed in a con¬ 
venient position in the machine. 

The diagram illustrating the foregoing, is de¬ 
signed merely to show in a simple manner, how the 
different mechanical and electrical parts are con¬ 
nected up together. 

Function of the Interrupter.— The inter¬ 
rupter G, while placed in the primary circuit, 
necessarily controls not only the primary, but 
also the secondary circuit. It should not be con¬ 
founded with the distributer to which the wire T 
runs from the secondary coil. 

The office of the interrupter is to break the 
primary circuit of the magneto at a time when a 
spark is required, and the duty of the distributer 
is to have its finger J in such a position at that 


152 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


particular time as to make the connection in the 
secondary circuit with the particular spark plug 
which requires a spark. 

Vibratory Coils.— The secondary coil may be 
so constructed that it will give only a single spark 
at each impulse, or a plurality of them, and many 
argue that the latter is more efficient for that rea¬ 
son. 



The diagram, Fig. 92 will show how this type of 
secondary is made and operated. The induction 
coil has a core A of soft iron, and at one end is an 
armature B, mounted on the end of a spring finger 
C, this finger being attached to a binding post D. 

The spring C holds the armature B normally 
out of contact with the end of the core A, and in 
contact with the end of an adjusting screw E which 
screws through a post F. The primary coil has 



















IGNITION SYSTEMS 


153 


one of its ends connected np with the binding post 
D, by a wire G; and the other terminal of the 
primary, has a wire H which goes to the battery 
I, and from the battery to the post F, through 
wire J. 

A condenser K is placed intermediate the two 
wires G J, by the connections L M. The wire H 
has a switch N in its line, as shown, and the sec¬ 
ondary coil 0 is wound around the primary in the 
usual manner. 

Operation of Vibratory Coil.— The operation 
is as follows: When the switch N is closed the 
current from the battery goes through the pri¬ 
mary coil, wire G, spring finger C, and wire J 
back to the battery which originated the energy. 
The result of this current is to magnetize the core 
A, and thus draw the armature B away from the 
adjusting screw E, thereby breaking the primary 
circuit, which demagnetizes the core, and the 
spring finger returns and again establishes a cir¬ 
cuit. 

This action of the vibrating armature is exactly 
similar to the electric bell, but there is one im¬ 
portant addition, and that is the condenser K 
which is added to the familiar mechanism, and the 
uses of which should be explained in connection 
with this apparatus. 

Surging Movement of Current. —Whenever 


154 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


a primary current is broken, a surging effect takes 
place. When the break occurs the strength of the 
field or force in the armature winding rapidly 
decreases, and when the connection is again made 
this force rapidly increases. This objection of 
the current to constantly change its current 
strength, produces what is called self inductance. 

Timing Device.— The current in the secondary, 
which makes the spark, at the time the break 
occurs, depends for its strength on the rapidity 



with which the strength of the primary goes down, 
so that a timing device is used on a plain or 
ordinary coil to effect this. 

In the vibratory coil, however, the object is to 
make the break with exceeding rapidity so there 
will be a series of sparks, instead of only a single 
one at each break. 

Contact Makers. —This device is designed to 
afford a means whereby a circuit is closed, and 
broken only at the time a spark is made. A type 
of this device is shown in Fig. 93. 







IGNITION SYSTEMS 


155 


It is simply a case A, usually attached to the 
gear box of an engine, which serves as the journal 
bearing for a shaft B, which enters at one side, 
and drives a cam C. Within the case is a spring 
finger D, attached to a binding post E, and the 
free end of the spring has an A-shaped contact 
point F which is designed to enter the Y-shaped 
notch of the cam, as the latter turns. 

To prevent the A-shaped projection from com¬ 
ing into contact with the cam when the Y-shaped 



7 94. Contact - -Breaker . 


portion is opposite, an adjustable screw G is pro¬ 
vided, which screws through a bushing of in¬ 
sulating material secured to the case. 

The current is through the adjusting screw, 
spring finger D, and binding post E. By this 
construction the circuit is broken during the en¬ 
tire revolution of the cam, except when the notch 
in the cam appears at the A-shaped contact point. 

The Contact Bkeaker. —Compare this with the 
contact breaker shown in Fig. 94. The case is 








156 


AUTOMOBILES FOE BOYS 


also provided to receive the end of a journal A, 
which rotates a cam. In this case the cam B has 
an A-shaped projection C. This projection comes 
into contact only momentarily with the anti-fric¬ 
tion wheel D on one end of a lever E, which is 
pivoted midway between its ends to the case. 

The free end of the lever is normally held out 
of contact with a terminal F, by means of a spring 
Gr. The terminal is insulated from the case. By 
this arrangement the circuit is closed at all times 
except during that short period when the point C 
is in contact with the wheel D. 

Sparking Plugs.— Much of the difficulty of sat¬ 
isfactory running is due to the sparking plug 
which contains the small points, on which every¬ 
thing in the power system depends. The intense 
heat generated at that point by the secondary coil 
tends to destroy them, so that the points should be 
larger when used with a magneto, and they should 
be closer together than if used wholly with a 
battery. 

Testing Plugs.— This is a simple matter, and in 
so-called engine troubles, this is generally the first 
thing considered. It should be unscrewed and 
laid on the cylinder so it is in metallic contact. 
The character of the spark exhibited, when the 
engine is cranked, will show whether or not the 
fault is due to the plug or to the electrical source. 


IGNITION SYSTEMS 


157 


If no spark is obtained then the electrical system 
must be examined. Commence at the battery. 
When the engine is on the sparking point and the 
primary switch closed, the terminals of the sus¬ 
pected wires may be touched by a test wire and 
if a current then flows it will indicate a break at 
that point. 

Short Circuiting Faults. —A short circuit is 
one where the path of the current is from the 
lead to the return wire at some point between the 
battery, or source of electrical energy, and the 
coil or other mechanism which is to be operated 
by the electricity. 

When this occurs the first thing is to examine 
the conductors and ascertain whether the insula¬ 
tion is intact. Sometimes the insulation becomes 
worn or frayed, and it is not infrequent for the 
ends of the wire, where attached to the binding 
post to spread out, where the conductor is made 
up of a lot of small wires, and some of them touch 
the metal alongside of the binding post. 

Short Circuiting of Secondary Wires.— The 
secondary wires often cause short circuiting by 
lying too close to the metal of the engine or case. 
Great care should be observed to use the best 
insulated wire, and to see that they are free from 
dangerous contact. 

Stranded cables are better for all wiring pur- 


158 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


poses, as vibration will not affect the screws which 
hold them at the contacts. A solid wire will cause 
a constant jar, and affect all connections. 


CHAPTER XIII 


AUTOMOBILE ACCESSORIES 

Self-starting devices are the latest perma¬ 
nent addition to a perfect car equipment. Two 
general types are being made, one purely me¬ 
chanical in its character, and the other operated 
by the engine itself. 

The mechanical devices usually have some con¬ 
nection with the forwardly-projecting end of the 
crank shaft, where the present cranking shaft is 
located, and some of the inventions in this respect 
have an arrangement whereby the driver is able 
manually to operate the starter from his seat. 

The actual work of turning the shaft is now per¬ 
formed by compressed air which actuates mechan¬ 
ism that gives from one to two turns to the shaft, 
sufficient to ignite the fuel in several of the cylin¬ 
ders. 

Simple Type of Starter. —The simplest type of 
starter is that which utilizes the cylinders them¬ 
selves to give the initial turns. To illustrate the 
matter we have given some sketches of the engine 
cycle, in Fig. 95. The four positions of the piston 

159 


160 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


in a four-cylinder engine are so placed that the 
spark cannot ignite the charge in either cylinder. 

Cylinders 1 and 2 are descending, and 3 and 4 
are ascending. The charge in 4 is partially com¬ 
pressed, hut it must reach the position indicated 
by the dotted lines A before it can be ignited. 



The sparking mechanism was cut off before the 
cylinder 1 reached its highest point, at the previ¬ 
ous stopping of the car, so that it still has an un¬ 
exploded charge; and piston 3 is now discharging 
the gas from that cylinder. 

As the engine is now at rest, the problem is to 
supply a charge to cylinder 1, or a pressure of 

































AUTOMOBILE ACCESSORIES 161 


sufficient strength to turn the engine shaft so 
that the piston in 1 will be brought up to the ex¬ 
plosion line A. It is accomplished in the follow¬ 
ing manner: 

One or more of the engine cylinders is con¬ 
nected up by a small pipe with a storage tank, 
located at any convenient point, so that at each 
explosion a portion of the charge in the cylinders 
goes into the tank, where it is held by a check 
valve. 

The Distributee.— This tank is connected with 
a distributer, which controls the pressure flow to 
the different cylinders. In Fig. 91 the dis¬ 
tributer would send this pressure to cylinder No. 
1. The opening of a valve readily accomplishes 
this, and if the charge in No. 4 should not ex¬ 
plode, the next in order to get the compressed 
gas from the tank, would be cylinder 4, which 
would bring cylinder 3 into position for firing. 

As soon as ignition takes place, the driver 
merely shuts off the valve, and no further atten¬ 
tion is required to operate it. 

Lighting. —Most cars depend for illumination 
on the use of compressed gas usually, some form 
of acetylene, which makes a brilliant light, and is 
not expensive. 

The best cars, however, are also equipped with 
electricity, some depending on storage batteries, 


162 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


and others on current generated on the car itself. 
There is nothing in either system that requires 
any special explanation, nor are they difficult to 
care for and operate. 

Signaling.— It has been the custom for drivers, 
in approaching corners, or street intersections, 
to hold out the right hand as a sign that a turn is 
to be made to the right, or the left hand for a turn 
in the other direction. 

Car Signals.— Numerous devices are now on 
the market designed to be located both in front 
and in rear of the vehicle, which are intended to 
indicate direction, as well as to impart other in¬ 
formation. 

These signals are under control of the driver, 
and have signs on them which indicate “stop,” 
“right,” “left,” or other words which conspicu¬ 
ously display the intention of the driver. 

All machines have signaling horns of some 
character, operated, usually, by some mechanical 
arrangement connected with the gearing or by 
compressed air, and others are connected up with 
the engine exhaust. Chime whistles are so op¬ 
erated. 

Speed Signals.— Other inventions are designed 
to indicate, by automatic mechanism, the speed of 
the car, in which color displays the relative speed. 
Thus, a car going at the normal speed, say 10 


AUTOMOBILE ACCESSORIES 163 


miles per hour, would show a white light; from 
10 to 15 miles, blue; from 15 to 20 miles, green; 
and above that speed, red. 

The foregoing colors and speeds are arbitrarily 
selected, merely to show the ideas involved. The 
device in question has nothing whatever to do 
with the regular speed registering mechanism of 
the car, but is designed to show pedestrians and 
police officials the actual running speed at a 
glance. 

Mufflers. —There is really no excuse for noisy 
automobiles. Mufflers are now made which ab¬ 
solutely eliminate all noise from the exhaust. 
The great difficulty in the past has been to make 
them sufficiently large for the engine. If too 
small they do not take care of the exhaust prop¬ 
erly, and they also serve to check the flow of the 
exhaust gases from the engine, and thus greatly 
decrease the power of the engine. 

Exhaust.— All racing engines are made with¬ 
out exhausts, so there will be nothing to retard 
the flow of the exhaust. 

The function of the muffler is to receive the 
exhaust gas and permit it to expand as nearly 
as possible down to atmospheric pressure before 
delivering it to the air. Fig. 96 shows the 
simplest form in which it can be made. 

Construction of Muffler.— The inner pipe 


164 


AUTOMOBILES FOB BOYS 


A, from the engine exhaust, passes axially through 
a cylinder B, the pipe, however, being closed at 
its inner end where it is attached to the head C. 
Numerous small holes D are formed through this 
pipe for the escape of the burnt gases. 

Within the cylinder B is a smaller cylinder E, 
surrounding the inner tube. This has one end 
attached to the head C, and its other end is open 
so as to provide a passage way F from the in¬ 



terior of the cylinder. The discharge ports are 
at G, through the head C. 

Almost any design of muffler is serviceable, if 
it has sufficient area. However large it may be it 
is always advisable to have a valve in the pipe A 
from the engine manifold, so the muffler can be 
cut out going up steep hills. 

Ball and Roller Bearings. —All running gears 
are provided with either ball, or roller bear¬ 
ings. For heavy vehicles roller bearings are 
most serviceable, but for light vehicles and for 









AUTOMOBILE ACCESSORIES 165 


speed most manufacturers prefer ball-bearings. 

Race Ways.— The object in the use of balls, is 
to provide two, three, or four points of contact, 
which should be so arranged as to have the paths 



Jl f jM/. 97. 3 -Point Boiler Bearing . 


of the bearings of equal lengths, as nearly as 
possible, and thus prevent the balls from wearing 
by creeping along the contact walls, and also 
thereby wearing the paths on which they travel. 

The Three-Point Contact.— To understand the 
full importance of this, examine Fig. 97, in which 



jF'ig. 98. l/iron d Bearirtd 

A is the roller, or shaft, and B the hub having 
the raceway C designed to hold the balls D, and 
gives two points of contact, the third point being 
the shaft A. 



















166 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


Compare the foregoing figure with the illustra¬ 
tion given in Fig. 98, where the contact points 
A, B, C, represent the three bearing circles, 
which differ in their circumference, and it is obvi- 



f lg. 9B. Improper '/lltnemcnt. 


ous that a ball in traveling around must slip some¬ 
where on one or more of the paths A, B, C. 

Wrong Construction.— Another sample of 
wrong construction is shown in Fig. 99. In this 



diagram the three bearing points A, B, C, also 
represent circles of different diameters, which are 
sure to wear grooves in the three paths made by 
the balls. 























AUTOMOBILE ACCESSORIES 167 

The mpst ideal form of bearing is shown in Fig. 
100, which represents the four-point contact, and 
this also provides against longitudinal thrust of 
the shaft or axle. 

Roller Bearings. —This type of bearing is ideal 
because of the large surface which is available. 
The difficulty is to keep the rollers parallel, with 
the shaft. Furthermore, they should not roll in 
contact with each other. To obviate this the 
rollers are put into a cage. 



Code foi • Roller 3 earn? 


Form of Roller Bearing.— Fig. 101 shows a 
side and a cross section of a set of rollers held 
within a cage formed of two end rings A A, each 
roller B having at its end a reduced bearing C, 
and intermediate the rollers are tie rods D, which 
keep the rings in proper relation to each other, 
and also prevent them from alining themselves 
diagonally along the shaft, or against the bearing 
within the boxing. 







168 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


To provide means for utilizing roller bearings 
so they will take up end thrust, taper rollers are 
employed, as shown in Fig. 102. 

The shaft, or axle, A, has two runways, B, C, 
which are conically-formed, and inclined toward 
each other. The rollers D are tapering, and have 



their small ends pointed towards each other so 
that the outer ends of the bearing surfaces E of 
the hub are at a considerable angle to the axis of 
the shaft. 

These rollers are also mounted in cages which 
turn around the shaft. This structure, in a modi¬ 
fied form, is largely used in automobile construc¬ 
tion. 











CHAPTER XIV 



RUNNING AN AUTOMOBILE 

Don't look to de right, don't look to de left; 

But keep in de middle ob de road. 

This couplet formed part of an old song long 
before the automobile was known. It serves as a 
text for some advice in running a machine. When 
a novice takes out a car for the first time he feels 
pretty safe in the block intermediate the cross¬ 
ings, and it is only when he comes to the inter¬ 
secting streets that he begins to feel that some¬ 
thing must be done with the signal or the levers, 
or both. 

Running Close to the Curb. —If he runs 
near the curb he will find it necessary to go very 
close up to the corner before he is able to 
notice an approach of a vehicle from the right. 
If he nears the corner running near the middle of 
the road, it will not be necessary for him to keep 
such a sharp watch for the sudden appearance of 
a vehicle, which gives the novice such a fright. 

The Middle of the Road. —For this reason, 

169 


170 


AUTOMOBILES FOB BOYS 


therefore, the homely advice above, is very appro¬ 
priate. When in the middle of the road, the look¬ 
ing to the right, or to the left is a matter which 
is unnecessary. 

In every community certain local regulations 
are established, which should be learned, but there 
are well known rules, which have grown into well 
recognized laws everywhere, and if they are once 
understood, will apply wherever you happen to 
be. 

Community Eegulations.— The first of these is 
to keep to the right in passing a vehicle which is 
approaching you. 

The second is, to pass to the left of a vehicle 
which is going in the same direction. 

Third, in making a turn at the intersection of 
streets make a loop which will carry you beyond 
the farther side of the street, and do not try to 
turn within the limits of the crossing, or the 
comers of the street curbs. * 

Fourth, between street intersections, do not try 
to make a turn until you have examined the street 
behind you, and never attempt to make a long 
diagonal cut when the turn is being made. 

Approaching Car Tracks.— In approaching car 
tracks do so on the principle that a train is com¬ 
ing, and act accordingly. Don’t take anything 
for granted. This applies when there are any 


RUNNING AN AUTOMOBILE 171 


obstructions either way along the track for several 
hundred feet from the roadway on which you are 
traveling. 

Coasting.— It is a mistake to coast down hill 
with the brakes set for controlling the car. In¬ 
stead, cut out the ignition, select a gear best suited 
for the grade of the hill, and run the machine 



jTYp./Od. Caution i 


down under compression; that is to say, against 
the engine. If the grade is very steep select low 
gear, and in that way you have a very strong 
leverage. 

This saves an immense amount of wear on the 
brakes, and if the grade is extraordinarily steep 
the brakes may be used to reenforce the compres¬ 
sion. 

Signs op the Road.— The American Motor 
League has adopted a series of caution signs 


172 AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 

shown in Fig. 103, which are explained as fol¬ 
lows: 

1. Approach to a steep descent. 2. Approach¬ 
ing railroad crossing. 3. Branch road to the 
right. 4. Branch road to the left. 5. Cross 
roads. 6. Ditch or abrupt depression in the road. 
7. Approach to a hummock. 8. City, village, or 
collection of inhabited dwellings. 

These signs are placed from 100 to 300 yards 
from the points to which they refer. 

Operating the Control.— All cars have prac¬ 
tically the same arrangement of pedals for con¬ 
trolling the car with the feet. This refers, of 
course, to the clutch, brake, and throttle pedals. 
In cities, running through crowded streets, the 
foot throttle should he used, so as to keep both 
hands free; but in the open country, where change 
is not required so frequently, this control is 
usually by hand. 

The Crucial Point.— The crucial point of 
every learner, is starting the machine. The first 
duty is to note that the transmission lever is at 
the neutral point, and that the emergency brake 
is set. The spark control lever is then set at the 
proper point, and the engine cranked, if it has 
no self starting mechanism. 

Clutch Pedal and Spark Control.— Now, be¬ 
fore touching the clutch pedal, adjust the spark 


RUNNING AN AUTOMOBILE 173 


control lever until the engine has picked up its 
speed properly. Then depress the clutch pedal 
so as to disengage the clutch, and release the 
emergency brake. Leaving the clutch still dis¬ 
engaged move the transmission lever to low gear, 
and, with the right foot, press down the throttle 
pedal, if there is any slacking in the speed of the 
engine. 

The clutch pedal may now he slowly allowed to 
raise by the foot until it gradually takes hold. 
It is at this point where the beginner must take 
the utmost care. Invariably, he will do this too 
quickly. After several trials he will learn to do 
it deliberately, so as to avoid the jerk caused by a 
sudden grip. 

Neutral Position of Transmission Lever.— 
The moment the car stops, reach for the trans¬ 
mission lever, and put it into its neutral position. 
This should never he neglected. 

After the car starts, and it is apparent that the 
engine is running strong, depress the clutch pedal 
with the left foot, and quickly change the trans¬ 
mission lever to the next speed, and the clutch 
is then again deliberately thrown in. 

Throwing in Gears.— There is an art in throw¬ 
ing in the gears which experience will enable a 
driver to do without grinding. To change from 
intermediate to high, observe the same order,— 


174 


AUTOMOBILES FOB BOYS 


that is, release the clutch, then change the trans¬ 
mission lever, and again slowly bring the clutch 
into operation. 

In Beversing. —For reversing, wait until the 
car stops. Then cut out, or release the clutch. 
The brakes must be released, the transmission 
lever moved to a reverse position, and the clutch 
then thrown in gradually. 

Quick Stops. —Quick stops are sometimes 
necessary. This is done by pressing down the 
clutch and brake pedals, with the feet, and setting 
the emergency brake at the same time. For or¬ 
dinary stops, close the throttle, so as to allow the 
engine to reduce the speed on its compression, 
then throw out the clutch with the left foot, and 
follow this up by pressing the brake pedal with 
the right foot, so as to gradually bring the car to a 
stop. 

Then put the transmission lever to its neutral 
position . 

Ease in Manipulating Progressive System.— 
Of the two types, the progressive system of 
transmission is the easiest to master, as the novice 
frequently finds it difficult to quickly grasp the 
position and movement of the lever. He has so 
many things to learn about at the start. The 
progressive type is easy to master as it needs to 
be moved in one direction only. 


Tiff. /Q4. Mirit/ff for TtyMinf Circuit . 


RUNNING AN AUTOMOBILE 175 


■t*ttar Let r-yr/o 3 C Z 3 . 



•k/O e Turry */>/Q> 

































































176 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


In either case, however, the aim should be to 
make the two gears engage each other at as nearly 
the same speed as possible. If the learner will 
remember that the object of temporarily throwing 
out the clutch, is to allow the clutch shaft to slow 
down, and then move the transmission lever after¬ 
wards, he will be able, after several trials, to 
catch them at a point where they will easily en¬ 
gage each other without any noise. 

This applies to the selection type, also. 

It has been stated that a locomotive engineer 
becomes so used to the feel of his engine that he 
can sense a wrong action of any part of the im¬ 
mense mechanism under his control. There is a 
vibratory instinct, if we may so term it, that 
affects the driver, which does not extend to the 
person seated at his side. 

It is so particularly in the case of an automo¬ 
bile driver. The steering wheel is a sort of 
antennae, which imparts a vibratory intelligence 
to him, that cannot be grasped or understood by 
others in the car. 

At first the matter of driving is a feeling of in¬ 
tensity in doing certain things, and in trying to 
anticipate the conditions. This state of mind con¬ 
tinues until driving becomes a reflex action. The 
throttle, or the pedals are instinctively moved; 
the throwing in of a gear is proceeded with in an 


RUNNING AN AUTOMOBILE 177 


















































































































178 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


easy, natural fashion, and the starting movement 
is brought about without a perceptible jerk. 

Wiring for Lighting. —For the purpose of giv¬ 
ing a comprehensive idea of the method used in 
wiring up the lighting apparatus of a car, a full 
page diagram is given, Fig. 104, which is regarded 
as the most approved form. This shows two main 
head lamps, a rear lamp, two side lamps, and a 
dash lamp. 

The system is equally well adapted for battery 
or dynamo generation, and by the aid of the sketch 
all the circuits can be readily traced out on a 
machine, or an initial installation put in. 

Wiring up for Ignition.— As an important part 
in the care of a car depends on knowing the cor¬ 
rect leads of all wires in the ignition system, a 
plain diagram is presented, Fig. 105, which, if 
carefully studied, will serve as a guide for this 
type of ignition. 

The engine shows two independent batteries as 
the source of electrical power for starting, and 
a motor-generator for running service. The 
motor generator transforms the direct current 
of the batteries into the alternating current neces¬ 
sary for ignition, which latter is raised to a high 
tension in the ordinary way, as heretofore ex¬ 
plained. 


RUNNING AN AUTOMOBILE 179 


The sizes of the two sets of wires are also indi¬ 
cated, and the switch shows how connection is 
made when the starter switch is thrown in. 


CHAPTER XV 

FUEL AND LUBRICANTS 

There is greater misconception and real ig¬ 
norance about gasoline than concerning any other 
subject or material connected with automobiles. 
The explosive nature of gasoline seems to act the 
same as gunpowder, whereas, in fact, it is en¬ 
tirely different. 

Knowledge on this important subject is lack¬ 
ing, because not enough care and study has been 
bestowed on it to bring out the proper informa¬ 
tion. Most people know that in order to explode 
gasoline in an engine, air is required; but few of 
them stop to consider that air is also the impor¬ 
tant thing necessary to burn gasoline in the open 
air. 

An Experiment With Gasoline.— Experiments 
have been made with gasoline which show better 
than anything else where the danger lies, and 
what should be avoided. A can, partly filled with 
gasoline, was permitted to stand for a few min¬ 
utes, until some of the gasoline was allowed to 
180 


FUEL AND LUBRICANTS 


181 


evaporate. The escaping vapor of course readily 
ignited and burned, but no explosion followed. 
It burned, but the blaze was at the top only. The 
gasoline in the can did not burn; only the vapor 
which was collecting and escaping at the top. 

Gasoline was next put into a half pint cream 
bottle, so that it was half full. The opening of 
such a bottle is nearly as large diametrically as 
the bottle itself. After allowed to stand so as to 
permit evaporation to take place, a lighted match 
was thrust down into the gasoline. While the 
vapor at the top burned, the gasoline extinguished 
the match, the reason being that there was not 
enough oxygen within the bottle at the region of 
the surface of the gasoline to make an explosive 
mixture, and there was not an explosive mixture 
formed until the vapor had issued from the mouth 
of the bottle, and came into contact with the sur¬ 
rounding atmosphere. 

Air Necessary for Explosion. —The fact is, the 
hydro-carbon in the gasoline needs air to sup¬ 
port combustion, and it must have at least three 
parts of oxygen (which means fifteen parts of 
air), to one part of carbon, before it can be ig¬ 
nited. Air, for this purpose, cannot by any possi¬ 
bility, find its way down into the bottle, hence it 
will be seen that no danger need be anticipated 
from this source. 


182 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


The inexperienced, however, will tell you, that 
he knows it will explode, because he has had some 
experience of that kind. Let us explain what 
happened in these explosions, and then the differ¬ 
ence in the conditions will be understood. 

Making an Explosive Mixture.— The same 
bottle used with the previous experiment was 
then taken, and the same amount of gasoline put 
into it. Air was then fanned into it, and a match 
applied. An explosion followed, because enough 
air has been admitted to make an inflammable gas. 

If the mouth of the bottle is large enough to per¬ 
mit the products of combustion to pass out, no 
harm results; but if the opening of the bottle is 
too small, then the expanding gases will shatter 
the bottle. 

Gunpowder.— Gunpowder acts differently, for 
the following reasons: Enough oxygen is com¬ 
pounded with the gunpowder to support combus¬ 
tion, and when a sufficient heat is applied it re¬ 
quires no outside air to cause combustion. The 
principal constituent of gunpowder is a fuel; so 
with gasoline. Every fuel requires oxygen be¬ 
fore it will burn. 

Filled Tank not Explosive.— If a tank is en¬ 
tirely filled with gasoline, it cannot explode. It 
may leak, and the escaping gasoline is thus 
brought into contact with sufficient air to aerate 


FUEL AND LUBRICANTS 


183 


it. When this burns it develops a heat; this in 
turn increases the temperature of the gasoline 
and increases the rate of evaporation, so that it 
now begins to issue forth in greater volume, thus 
adding to the intensity of the flame; and as the 
evaporation increases, it reaches a point where the 
tank openings are not large enough to permit it 
to escape fast enough, and an explosion follows. 

Why Gasoline will not Burn Within a Closed 
Tank. —Now this explosion is attributed to the 
burning of the gasoline within the tank. Such is 
not the case, for the reasons stated. It will be 
found that the difficulty lies in allowing the tank to 
become filled with an explosive gas, and it is 
brought about in this way: 

If all the gasoline is drawn from a tank, the 
sides of the tank will retain enough gasoline to 
form a heavy vapor of hydro-carbon gases. This 
gas is heavier than air, and, like water, will re¬ 
main in the bottom. Sooner or later some of the 
gas will pass out, particularly the lighter portions, 
and air will intermingle with the gas, and it is 
then in a ripe condition for an explosion. 

It is obvious, therefore, that the first duty is to 
see that there are no leaks, and when discovered, 
to repair immediately. 

Filling Tanks Having Dried Out Gasoline. 
—The second, and more important care, is, to be 


184 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


sure and not attempt to fill a tank which has been 
allowed to run dry, without first blowing out the 
vapor, if there is any danger from lights. If 
there is still oil in the tank when you refill, there 
is no danger from explosions, because the vapor 
within is too heavy, and requires too much air to 
explode. 

To Extinguish Gasoline Fiees. —When a fire 
actually takes place in a gasoline tank, do not use 
water in trying to extinguish it. Dry sand, or a 
woolen blanket will be far more serviceable. The 
latter should not he applied haphazard, as so many 
do in the excitement of the moment. Try and re¬ 
member what it is that the blanket is used for. 
The object is to- try and prevent air from reach¬ 
ing the flame, hence the effort should be to so ar¬ 
range the blanket that air cannot reach the burn¬ 
ing part. 

Ammonia as an Extinguishes.— It is better, 
therefore, to place the blanket around the lower 
part of the tank, or below the flame itself, so as to 
prevent air from rushing up into the burning 
zone. The air coming in from above will soon be 
inadequate to aerate the flame, and it will be 
smothered. 

A bottle of ammonia, and one should always he 
kept handy, is the best, in the absence of regular 
extinguishers, to kill the flame. 


FUEL AND LUBRICANTS 


185 


The lesson learned from the experiments show, 
that a large amount of air is necessary to make an 
explosive compound. 

Leaks.— Leaks in tanks can be repaired tem¬ 
porarily, with tire cement, and patches, but as 
gasoline affects the rubber it should be properly 
soldered up at the first opportunity. 

Water in gasoline is the most serious trouble. 
All fuel of this kind should be strained through 
chamois leather. This will effectually prevent 
water from getting in. 

Lubricants.—A necessary element in gasoline 
engines, is a lubricant. This is as essential as the 
fuel itself. The object is to remove friction be¬ 
tween the moving parts. Cylinders of engines are 
heated to high temperatures, and this makes wear 
between the parts not lubricated a most serious 
one. 

While ordinary gasoline would be a good lubri¬ 
cant for some uses, it would be of no avail in the 
cylinders of an explosion engine, for two reasons: 
First, it has but little viscosity,—that is, it has no 
body which holds together so as to- produce a film 
on the surface of the contacting metals. 

Viscosity.— The film produced by gasoline, for 
instance, is very thin, but that of castor oil is 
very thick. The latter, therefore, has greater 
viscosity. Then again, gasoline, is readily 


186 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


affected by temperature. If it ignites readily, and 
thus loses its character as a lubricant, it can be 
of no service. 

It is necessary, therefore, that the lubricant 
should not be affected or changed in its character 
at a low heat. 

Carbonization.— Some oils when subjected to 
heat, or when exposed to air, will become sticky 
or gummy. This is one of the most serious things 
possible in a gas engine cylinder, because a 
deposit is formed which causes carbonization 
through the continued application of heat, result¬ 
ing in the scratching of the cylinder by breaking 
the packing rings. 

Acid in Lubricants. —In the early production 
of lubricants, acid was one of the elements in oils 
not carefully guarded against; and even now, 
with all the skill of the manufacturer, a small per¬ 
centage will be found in most products. The pres¬ 
ence of this produces corrosion, or pitting of the 
working parts. This, and the presence of foreign 
matter, will condemn any oil for cylinder purposes. 

Composition of Lubricants.— Lubricants are 
composed of either animal, vegetable, or mineral 
matter, and they may be liquids or solids, or a 
combination of both. 

Of the latter, graphite is the best and most 
widely known. It is one form of carbon, and is 


FUEL AND LUBRICANTS 


187 


used in a finely-divided state, either dry, or mixed 
with a good lubricating oil. 

Soapstone is also frequently employed and gen¬ 
erally with a liquid lubricant. 

Grease.— Grease, usually of animal origin, 
used in connection with graphite, makes by far the 
best lubricant for bearings, and for similar pur¬ 
poses, as it can be readily retained in the bear¬ 
ings. 

Graphite. —On the other hand, graphite, if in¬ 
troduced in a cylinder with a good liquid lubri¬ 
cant, will, in time, fill up the pores of the metal, 
and thus produce a good surface, and it also pro¬ 
tects the cylinders from carbonizing, and prevents 
the pistons from “Freezing” as it is called when 
it is caused to stick together by the heat. 

The Test of Cylinder Lubricants.— For cylin¬ 
ders the lubricant should have a flash point of at 
least 375, and a fire test of 430 degrees, Fahren¬ 
heit. Flashpoint has reference to the temperature 
at which it will give off inflammable vapor. Fire 
test has reference to the temperature at which the 
oil will actually ignite and burn. 

Any oil, in burning, will deposit more or less 
carbon, because being a fuel, it must have carbon. 
As mineral oils will stand higher temperatures 
before igniting, than animal or vegetable oils they 
are best suited for cylinders. 


188 


AUTOMOBILES FOB BOYS 


Lubricating Systems.— Various systems are 
employed in automobiles. The splash system has 
the advantage of simplicity since the cylinders, as 
well as the bearings, are provided with a modicum 
of oil at every revolution of the crank, the latter, 
or the connecting rods, being adapted to strike the 
pool of oil in the bottom of the chamber. 

The cylinder walls do not get the greatest bene¬ 
fit from this method of distributing the lubricant, 
as the splash is at the point when the piston 
reaches the lowest turn, so the lubrication on the 
cylinder is effectual only so far as the piston is 
able to draw it up or entrain it in its upward move¬ 
ment. 

Pressure Method.— Supplementing the splash, 
and frequently used as the sole mean is the plan 
adopted by many, and known as the pressure sys¬ 
tem, which not only lubricates the bearings and 
cylinders, but also the other mechanism in the 
car, is the use of pressure, which may be exerted 
by gravity, or by the use of hand pumps. 

Some employ the exhaust of the engine to draw 
up the oil. This requires ducts leading to all the 
parts which are adapted to take a liquid lubricant. 

The Precision System.— The most positive 
method is that which has a pump connected with 
the engine, which forces the oil to all the bearings 
at each turn of the engine, and for that reason is 


FUEL AND LUBRICANTS 


189 


called the precision system. It has the advantage 
that every bearing must get a certain portion of 
the lubricant, and as arrangement is made to 
catch and return the unused oil, it is also economi¬ 
cal in use, although more expensive to apply. 



Combined Force Feed and Splash System.— 
In Fig. 106 is illustrated one of the latest im¬ 
proved systems, in which there is utilized an in¬ 
ternal force feed and a constant level splash sys¬ 
tem. In this equipment a reservoir under the 
crank case contains the supply of oil. 

From the reservoir the lubricant is pumped 
























190 


AUTOMOBILES FOB BOYS 


through a tube extending the entire length of the 
crank case, with lateral connections leading di¬ 
rectly to each main bearing and to each cam shaft 
bearing. Any surplus to the bearings drips into 
small pans directly under the connecting rods. 

An open end tube projects from the connecting 
rod, and leads to the connecting rod bearing. At 
each revolution of the crank shaft this tube dips 
into the pan and forces sufficient oil directly to 
the connecting rod bearing for lubrication. 

There is a constant circulation of oil directly 
to and through every bearing in the motor, by 
means of a pump driven from the cam shaft. The 
oil pressure gauge on the dash, and the gauge on 
the crank case, will instantly tell what is going 
on. This is a very economical system. 


CHAPTER XVI 

CARE OF THE CAR 

Many people have an impression that as long 
as a car runs all right no care should be given to 
it. It is for this very reason we urge that a care¬ 
ful inspection should be made at regular intervals. 
The matter of going over the various parts, and 
examining the operative elements, should he 
made a habit. Become thoroughly acquainted 
with the mechanism. 

Regular Inspection a Good Habit. —This is as 
much a duty, as to keep the parts well oiled, or to 
supply it with water at proper intervals. In the 
present high state of the art pertaining to the 
manufacture of automobiles, the different parts 
are so made as to stand a great deal of wear and 
hard usage, so that before they show any signs 
of giving away, they will be worn down to the 
danger point. 

The Brake Shoe. —As an illustration, take the 
brake shoe. This may work satisfactorily and 
efficiently for a long time, and you flatter your- 

191 


192 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


self that you have a perfect car in this respect. 
The next day it gives out, and it is sure to be at 
the most critical moment. This is the history of 
all breakdowns. 

If an examination had been made a day or a 
week before, it would have shown the worn condi¬ 
tion, and permitted repair at that time when there 
was ample opportunity. 

Familiarity with Working Parts. —So with 
every other part of the car. The fact that it is 
working well should encourage you to examine the 
different parts to find the loose or worn elem^ts. 
It will teach you the weak spots. Familiarity 
with a car is an important element, and is the 
most efficient training practice, especially for one 
who wishes to acquire information and practical 
knowledge on this subject. 

The Engine.— There is nothing so vital as the 
engine. Several hours given each month, or even 
an hour or two a week to overhauling it, will amply 
repay you. The proper way is to do this inspec¬ 
tion and overhauling in a systematic way. One 
day one part can be examined, and the next day 
another part made the subject of investigation. 

Connecting Rods.— A loose bolt in one of the 
connecting rods, while it may run along for a week 
or two, and cause no damage, is sure to cause 
trouble unless arrested. The moment the con- 


CAEE OF THE CAR 


193 


nection of a wire begins to loosen, it will never 
stop until it has severed the connection entirely. 

In taking apart an engine every part should be 
cleaned as it is removed, taking the utmost care of 
each pin, bolt, or nut. The walls of the cylinders 
should be examined, the piston rings tested and 
note whether they are worn. 

Valves.— Then the valves need testing sepa¬ 
rately, and reground if there is the least indication 
of undue wear on one side more than on the other, 
or if there is the least carbon coating apparent. 

The best preparation for grinding them is a 
very fine emery, mixed with a heavy lubricant, to 
which should be added a small amount of kero¬ 
sene. 

Cam-Shaft.— When the cam-shaft is removed, 
note the marks, to see where they register with 
the marks on the cam shaft gears. Familiarize 
yourself with these details. 

The Clearance.— Particularly examine the 
clearance between the valve stem and plunger rod. 
If the clearance is too great, the exhaust valve 
will open too late. A small clearance is necessary 
to allow for the expansion of the valve stem. 

Clutches.— Some clutches are so arranged that 
they may be removed as a whole; in others the 
separate parts may be taken out. If the latter 
appears worn, replace it at once. Do not wait un- 


194 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


til necessity compels you. Leather for this pur¬ 
pose should always be kept on hand, and the old 
leathers used as patterns for cutting the new. 

The Clutch Leather.— When the leather wears 
down so the rivet heads are in contact with the 
metal surface, they should he taken out, and the 
leather countersunk, so that the new rivets will he 
deep enough to clear contact. This is something 
which, at the time you are examining the car, has 
not yet given any trouble, but the next day, if 
not attended to, the clutch may refuse to release 
itself quickly, and you are apt to wonder what the 
trouble may be. 

Rivets in the Leather.— Keep the rivet heads 
free of metallic contact. This, and care in putting 
on the leather evenly will make a clutch that is sure 
to give you efficient service. If it does not grip 
quickly after the foot releases it, the spring is not 
at proper tension. On the other hand, the spring 
should not be too strong, and to push back the foot 
with too great force, because this will set the 
clutch, and give the car an unpleasant jerk. 

Transmission System.— The transmission sys¬ 
tem should be examined at frequent intervals. 
The main thing is to note the hall hearings, and to 
remove old grease which has accumulated there. 
All hall bearings, however made, and applied, have 
more or less of a grinding effect. As a result, 


CARE OF THE CAR 


195 


small particles of iron are cut off from the con¬ 
tact surfaces, which is indicated by the fact that 
the grease is discolored, or blackened. 

The grease which is allowed to remain in the 
case for a long time has these small particles in 
contact with the balls and runways, and is sure 
to wear more than new grease. Plumbago in the 
grease will he of great service in aiding to coat 
the balls with a good surface. 

These remarks as to the removal of old grease 
is desirable wherever ball bearings are employed. 
The gears in the case should also be examined 
to ascertain whether the edges are chipped, or 
what the wearing action is. 

The Differential.— This also requires care, 
but carelessness in lubrication is the only feature 
lacking in so many cars, and it is the most fre¬ 
quent shortcoming with the novice. The differ¬ 
ential seems to be the one part of a car which, in 
his estimation, requires no attention. 

If there is any play between the pinions and the 
studs, it should be promptly taken up. This can 
be done, usually, by inserting washers of proper 
thickness behind the gears, in cases where no pro¬ 
vision has been made for adjustment. 

Universal Joints.— The wearing points of the 
universal are in the pins. These are susceptible 
of a great deal of wearing down before the facts 


196 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


will make themselves known in the operation of 
the machine, hence the necessity of examining this 
part when you are on an inspecting tour. 

Steering Gear. —The steering gear should be 
taken apart, and every working portion cleaned. 
The ball-bearings may be worn, or the joint out of 
adjustment, to which the stiffness of the turning 
movement is likely due. 

Worm and Worm Wheel. — When wear begins 
between the worm and worm wheel, there is a 
looseness apparent, so that the steering wheel 
must, sometimes make a considerable part of a 
turn before the effect will be apparent on the 
wheels. This should be taken up so the wheels 
will be in full mesh. 

The rod from the sector lever to the pedal 
should be taken off and examined, to see whether 
or not it is bent, and properly adjusted as to 
length. 

Batteries.— These need inspection and atten¬ 
tion more frequently than any other part of the 
mechanism. It is often the case that a battery, 
particularly storage batteries, will show strong 
amperage, and suddenly give out entirely. 

The Vibrator.—W hen such is the case it may be 
attributable to the contact point of the vibrator 
having too heavy an adjustment, and as a result, 
it will be less responsive, or be slow in its action. 


CAEE OF THE CAE 


197 


This causes corrosion of the contact points. In 
action the vibrator should give a high-pitched 
buzzing sound, which produces a hotter spark, 
and also preserves the life of the battery. 

The Electrolyte.— The electrolyte in the stor¬ 
age battery may need refilling. The old liquid 
should be removed, the case thoroughly washed 
out with distilled water, and refilled, using about 
three quarters of the old liquid, and the residue 
soft fresh water. 

Eeplace buckled or injured grids with new ones. 
If a plate has a considerable portion of the minim, 
or lead, broken or removed, it is always well to 
take it out and put in a new one as the grid in 
such a case has a reduced surface. 

Contact Points.— Examine all contact points, 
and clear the air vents and terminals, and par¬ 
ticularly note how the wires are arranged within 
the case, so they will not be subjected to vibration 
and thus affect the terminals. 

The utmost care should be exercised to line up 
the valves so they act at the proper time in the 
revolution of the crank shaft. Usually'the inlet 
valve plunger has a lock-nut adjustment, so that 
it may be set at the proper point. 

The points are indicated on the fly wheel and 
engine base, and when they coincide with, say 
cylinder No. 1, which is usually taken as the guide, 


198 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


the contact must be made between the valve-stem 
and plunger. If you find that the contact takes 
place before the two points are opposite each 
other, the valves open too early. 

The Magneto.— The only difference between the 
magneto and the battery system, as applied on 
cars, is in the method of obtaining the primary 
current. The magneto dispenses with the battery 
cells, the coil, the commutator, or contact breaker, 
which must be used with the battery, and the 
switching plug. 

Instead of the foregoing elements however, the 
magneto requires a contact breaker, and a con¬ 
denser. It is, therefore, much more simple to ex¬ 
amine and keep in order, than a battery outfit. 
The magneto, owing to the fact that it always has 
within itself the means to generate a current, and 
does not deplete itself, is far preferable to a bat¬ 
tery. 

Owing to the high tension character of most 
magnetos, the spark is also much hotter, and for 
that reason the ignition is more positive. 

Magneto Impulses.— As the magneto gives out 
impulses of certain intensity at each revolution, 
which impulses are designed to actuate the spark¬ 
ing mechanism at certain definite periods, it is 
obvious that the contact breaker must be properly 
set. 


CARE OF THE CAR 


199 


Timing the Magneto.— This is what is called 
timing the magneto, and it is one of the things 
necessary to observe, and to be able to adjust, if it 
is found that, for any reason, the disk, or the 
wheel of the contact breaker has turned on the 
shaft, as will sometimes be the case. 

All mechanism of this kind should be * 1 spotted ,’* 
that is, have punch marks on the disk and shaft 
so that it can always be put back to the proper 
operative position, or nearly so, and thus save the 
time and labor required for retiming. 

In general, however, it may be said that the 
magneto is one of the mechanical elements, which 
needs less care and attention than any other part 
of the car, and it is safe to examine and go through 
every other part of the machinery before attempt¬ 
ing to tamper with the magneto. 

The Carbureter.— In the past carbureters have 
had a bad reputation, probably, deservedly so. 
The great difficulty with most of them has been in 
the floats, and the float connections with the in¬ 
lets. This, and the fact that small particles, which 
somehow get into the oil, and block the flow at the 
needle point, and the presence of water, are the 
serious troubles. 

One can be remedied only by a thorough over¬ 
hauling, and the other by using special care in 
filling the tank with fuel. The float chamber 


200 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


should be kept clean, as well as the ducts and 
valve controlling the flow. 

Sometimes a small fiber will be lodged some¬ 
where in the pipes, and this will catch small 
particles, and temporarily arrest them. The ac¬ 
cumulated mass when dislodged blocks the valve, 
and the mystery seems inexplainable. 

Wrong adjustment in a carbureter manifests it¬ 
self in three ways: If the smoke is black, and the 
flame is red, the mixture is too rich; a yellow flame 
indicates a lean mixture; and a blue flame and 
clear exhaust shows that it is properly set. 

If an explosion takes place in the muffler, it is 
an indication that gasoline, or the vapor, has been 
carried over; and white smoke discharging from 
it shows that there is too much lubricating mate¬ 
rial going into the cylinders. 

Weather will affect mixtures, and more air is 
generally required on a hot day than during damp 
weather. This explains why a machine will run 
without trouble with a certain adjustment one day, 
and be very unsatisfactory the next. These things 
should be observed and mentally noted. 


CHAPTER XVII 


ELECTRIC VEHICLES 

The construction of electrically'-equipped cars 
is one which requires pages of explanations and 
illustrations to do it justice. The scope of the 
present work was originally intended to cover 
only gasoline-driven cars, so that this chapter, 
which in a measure only sets forth the manner in 
which such automobiles are built, will more par¬ 
ticularly point out the mechanism which pertains 
to the operation, and the care needed to maintain 
them. 

It is a long and difficult study to understand 
the electrical details necessary to build, repair, 
or maintain electric cars, but it is part of the gen¬ 
eral mechanic’s duty to understand where the 
troubles lie, when the mechainsm fails to respond, 
and most of the electrical devices are now so made 
that the ordinary mechanic is able to make re¬ 
pairs, even though he may not have a technical 
knowledge of electricty. 

Within the past five years this type of auto¬ 
mobile has been improved to such an extent that 
it is steadily gaining ground, and their use grow- 
201 


202 


AUTOMOBILES FOB BOYS 


ing to such a degree that it may soon become a 
great rival of the gasoline car, especially for 
pleasure purposes. 

There never has been any question as to the 
value of electric motors for traction service. 
Wherever a current of electricity can be dis¬ 
tributed and transmitted to a motor, it is the 
most satisfactory method of moving vehicles, as 
has been shown in street railways. 

Requirements.— But on individual cars, in¬ 
capable of getting current from a system of wir¬ 
ing, the matter presents an entirely different as¬ 
pect, and brings forth new problems, hence storage 
batteries must be resorted to, and this involves 
the consideration of many elements that may be 
ignored with the usual traction system. 

Inventors have vied with each other to produce 
a type of battery that would possess at least three 
particular features of excellence, which may be 
stated as follows: 

First. Exceeding lightness, proportioned to 
the energy exerted, and compactness of structure. 

Second. A form of grid which will hold the 
matter, or active material, within it, and prevent 
it from disintegrating or falling out of the re¬ 
cesses into which it is pressed. 

Third. To add to the life of the battery, or 
to the individual grids, or plates, which means the 


ELECTRIC VEHICLES 203 

discovery of new material, available to receive and 
accumulate the electric charge. 

Gasoline-electric Trucks. —Of late some prog- 
gress has been made in constructing a type of 
electrics in which a gasoline engine is used, that 
is connected up with an electric generator. The 
latter is used to charge a storage battery also 
mounted on the truck, and the storage battery 
supplies the motor. 

The gasoline engine being connected with the 
electric generator is constantly in condition to 
charge the storage battery and may be set in mo¬ 
tion, whenever the charge in the storage battery 
falls below a certain electro motive force. At 
other times the motor is at rest. 

In this type the electric motor is connected with 
the axle of the vehicle, so that it is always ready 
for service whether the gasoline motor is running 
or not. 

In the ordinary gasoline automobile it is essen¬ 
tial that the motor must be maintained in service 
at all times, so that any derangement in that part 
of the system, which includes the mechanism in¬ 
termediate the motor and axle, or the electrical 
devices, or the carbureter, means a dead car. 

It is urged that by combining the two systems 
a much wider range of usefulness will be obtained, 
and practice shows such to be the case. It has, 


204 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


however, some defects, one of which is the great 
weight necessary to maintain the entire train of 
mechanism thus described. 

The other disadvantage is the great first cost, 
although it is maintained that the decreased cost 
of maintaining the cars, while in use, is sufficient 
to warrant an increased cost in the selling price 
of the machines. 

It is undeniably true that such mechanism 
means additional care, and is liable to add to the 
complications necessary to operate the system, 
and it is obvious that these considerations will 
prevent the use of this type in all small vehicles, 
whereas it may be most serviceable and available 
in heavy trucks for transporting merchandise. 

The Current Used.— Storage batteries are 
charged with and use a direct current . The 
difference between a direct and an alternating 
current is, that in the first the current flows con- 
tinously over a wire in one direction, whereas in 
the latter it changes its direction, going, for an 
instant, from the north pole to the south pole, and 
the next instant from the south pole to the north 
pole, and for this reason it is said to alternate. 

Mechanically-produced electricity.— The al¬ 
ternating method is the natural form of flow in 
a current derived from mechanism, as, for in¬ 
stance, by means of a rotating armature. 


ELECTRIC VEHICLES 


205 


The electricity, in this case, is produced by a 
metallic body moving through a magnetic field, 
and as it passes through it takes up a certain 
electric impulse in one direction when the body 
approaches the field, and instantly reverses and 
flows in the opposite direction as the body recedes 
from the magnet, or field. 

To convert this alternating phase into what is 
called a direct current, certain dynamos are pro¬ 
vided with a commutator, and the function of this 
commutator, which has two oppositely-disposed 
fingers contacting therewith, is to so divert the 
alternating impulses that they will go over the 
wire in one direction only. 

Current from Batteries.— Currents derived 
from batteries do not have the alternating flow. 
Instead, the movement is in one direction only, 
and it is in connection with this method of pro¬ 
ducing electricity that the terms positive and 
negative are found convenient in describing the 
current, and the action of the mechanism operated 
by it. 

Primary Battery. —The primary battery is one 
which generates an electric current. It comprises 
one or more pairs of plates, of which zinc and 
copper are examples, although other couples are 
found to be equally serviceable. 

Two metals, or materials, such as carbon and 


206 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


zinc, are selected, which are termed electrical op¬ 
posites, or which are positive-negative to each 
other, and when such couples are immersed in an 
electrolyte a current will be set up between the 
two plates, if a wire is attached to each plate, 
and the outer ends of these wires brought to¬ 
gether, a continous current will flow through the 
wire. 

The electrolyte is a solution of water, with a 
small amount of sulphuric acid. Numerous acid 
solutions are made, and salt, or saline solutions 
are also frequently employed. 

Secondary, or Storage Batteries. —These are 
also called Accumulators, because they are so con¬ 
structed that they will accumulate a certain 
charge. The term Secondary is used to indicate 
the idea that they receive their charge from an 
outside source, in distinction from a Primary, 
which generates its own current. 

After the secondary is once charged it then be¬ 
gins to work on its own account, the same as a 
primary battery. 

Reversal of Currents. —When a storage bat¬ 
tery is being charged from an outside source of’ 
electricity, the current flows within the battery in 
one direction; but the moment the outside source is 
discontinued, and the battery itself is connected up 
with mechanism, it becomes a source of energy, but 


ELECTRIC VEHICLES 


207 


the current output is in the opposite direction. 

The foregoing suggestions and features of ex¬ 
planation are thought to be desirable, in view of 
the following statements which pertain to the 
operation of machines of this type. 

Charging. —One of the most important things 
in the care and handling of machines of this char¬ 
acter, is the charging of the batteries. The ut¬ 
most caution must be exercised to prevent de¬ 
rangement of the batteries. 

Thus, to connect the positive pole of the charg¬ 
ing generator with the negative pole of the 
storage battery- would reverse the current and 
quickly destroy the plates. 

Time Required, and Current.— It requires time 
to charge a battery, usually from twenty to thirty 
hours. The usual charging rate is about fifty 
amperes for a cell with a capacity of forty am¬ 
pere hours, and the voltage should be somewhat 
higher than the normal voltage output designed 
for the battery when it is in action. 

Troubles in Use.— The most frequent trouble 
in the use of batteries comes from short circuit¬ 
ing. This arises from two causes. The grids of 
the batteries are made of lead, cast in the form 
of flat plates, having small interstices, or open¬ 
ings, which are filled with various preparations, 
principally peroxide of lead. 


208 


AUTOMOBILES FOB BOYS 


Other types use iron and nickel, and many are 
composed of lead and zinc, but in any case the 
object of the grid is to receive and hold the active 
material, and present as large a surface of the 
minum as possible to the action of the electrolyte. 

When in use the lead particles begin to dis¬ 
integrate, more or less, and fall out of the cavi¬ 
ties of the grid, dropping to the bottom of the 
cell. In time the material thus deposited will 
form a path between the two adjoining plates, 
producing what is called a short-circuit, and if the 
accumulation is not removed, the plates will be 
seriously injured. 

Overcharging.— Sometimes the plates are over¬ 
charged, and the result is they will buckle, so that 
they touch each other, and a short circuit results. 
These hints are usually sufficient to indicate where 
the trouble will be found if the current measuring 
instruments indicate an excessive flow of current. 
In such cases the first direction to which the ex¬ 
aminer turns is the battery. 

The Circuiting. —It has been found necessary, 
in providing for the operations of an electric 
vehicle, that the motor should have a means 
whereby the speed and power of its output can 
be regulated. 

This may seem a very simple matter, at first 
glance, because, without stopping to examine the 


ELECTRIC VEHICLES 


209 


problem, and all the elements involved, it would 
be easy to settle it by simply giving the motor 
more or less current. To do so would turn the 
motor faster or slower. 

In the gasoline car provision is made whereby, 
through the change speed gears, the engine gets 
the benefit of the leverage, by reducing the speed 
of the axle, relative to the engine shaft, at first 
speed, and this enables the motor to pull the car 
up steep grades, or over difficult roads, which it 
would not be able to do if the relative rotations 
were the same as at high speed. 

Economy in Use of Current.— The same thing 
is necessary in the operation of the electric motor. 
The current must be so arranged that at certain 
periods it will be more effective than at others, 
and this effectiveness is generally wanted at times 
when the axles turn very slow, just the same as 
with the gasoline car. 

This economizes, and prevents the waste of cur¬ 
rent. It is accomplished by connecting up the 
cells in such a manner that they may give a large 
voltage and small amperage, or a low voltage and 
great amperage, and in doing so will not detract 
from the efficiency of the battery. 

Series and Parallel.— The device resorted to, 
whereby this may be accomplished, is in the man¬ 
ner that the cells are connected up with each other. 


210 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


In a general way, it may be said that the voltage 
has reference to the force, or pressure of the cur¬ 
rent, whereas amperage is the quantity which 
flows over the wire. 

Each cell has a voltage of, approximately, one 
and a half volts, and it matters not how large the 
cell may be, the voltage is no more. The amper¬ 
age, however, depends on the surface area of the 
plates comprising the active agents in the cell, 
so that each cell has, say one and a half volts, and 
ten, or twenty, or more amperes. 

If a number of such cells are connected up in 
one way the output may be represented in high 
amperage, or in high voltage. If we have a cer¬ 
tain number of cells, which, when combined, give 
ten volts and hundred amperes, the result would 
be 10 X 100, equal to 1000 Watts. 

But they may also be so connected together 
that they will have an output of 100 amperes and 
10 volts, the total of which is also 1000 Watts. 
Such a current would be put through the motor 
under ordinary running conditions, as a high driv¬ 
ing power is not necessary. 

But suppose it is desired to have a high or 
strong driving power; then the force of all the 
volts is required, so that one hundred volts are 
used, and only ten amperes. 

The Connections. —This is brought about by 


ELECTRIC VEHICLES 


211 


connecting up the cells in series, or, in multiple 
or in parallel. The series connection is where 
the cells are placed in a row, for instance, and 
are connected together so that the carbon plate 
of one cell is joined by a wire with the zinc plate 
of the other cell; or the positive plate of one is 
connected with the negative plate of the other, 
and so on. 

In that case all the current generated in all the 
cells join and flow along in one stream, from one 
end of the battery to the other. But now, all 
the positive plates may he connected together 
with one wire, and all the negative plates may be 
connected together with another wire, so that 
these two wires will thus be parallel with each 
other, and the lead wires which go to the motor 
are attached to these two parallel wires, and would 
represent the parallel type of connection. 

But it is the most common practice to divide 
the cell into two sets, each of which is called a 
unit. Each unit, having a certain number of 
cells, can also have them connected up in series, 
or in parallel, and the different parallel units may 
be connected up together, so as to form a connec¬ 
tion which is in multiple or in series multiple. 

Suppose there are eight units, each of ten volts, 
the motor would receive eighty volts. But now, 
if the cells are in parallel, or in multiple, as the 


212 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


case may be, then the pressure at the motor is 
equal to that of a single unit, but the current flow 
is eight times that of the foregoing example. 

The object, therefore, is to change the battery 
pressure on the one hand, and to produce the 
most effective action on the other hand, at the 
motor, and to do so make both battery and motor 
more efficient. 

The Controller.— The device which performs 
this operation, at the will of the operator, is called 
the Controller, which changes the wiring connec¬ 
tion from series to multiple, or the reverse. 

The Controller is, in all probability, the most 
complicated piece of mechanism in the entire 
electric car. It must make an entire series of 
changes for each of the different speeds, of which 
there are frequently six. 

The fields of the motor are also connected in 
series, or both series and multiple, so as to give 
a still greater efficiency. By this means the ter¬ 
minal points of the Controller may be turned, 
(1), so they will connect the batteries in multiple 
and the field windings in series; or, (2), the bat¬ 
teries in multiple and the fields in series multiple; 
or, (3), the batteries in series and the fields in 
series; or, (4), the batteries in series and the fields 
in multiple. 

The figures in parentheses indicate the first, 


ELECTRIC VEHICLES 


213 


second, third and fourth speeds, respectively, and 
in such an arrangement two battery units are 
used, and also two motors. 

The same rule as to efficiency applies with one 
motor, and two or more battery units. The bat¬ 
tery unit may be of any desired number of cells, 
as stated. 

The General Equipment. —Cars for pleasure 
purposes are of different types, such as run¬ 
abouts, roadsters, victorias, coupes, broughams, 
and the like, provided with batteries which will 
permit runs of at least 100 miles on each, charge. 

Speeds.— The Controller will permit of speed's 
ranging from five to thirty miles an hour. The 
number of cells vary with different makes, from 
twenty to forty, and the number of plates in each 
cell average about fifteen. 

It will thus be seen that the operating limit 
is wide enough to permit considerable latitude 
but recharging stations are now found every¬ 
where, particularly in the cities, and in the large 
towns. 

Accessories.—A fully-equipped electric, de¬ 
signed for the greatest luxury and comfort, has 
two head lamps, two side, and a tail lamp, and 
one in the interior, a lighting switch to control 
all the lights, a ventilator, voltammeter, shaft odo¬ 
meter, for showing speed and distance traveled, 


214 


AUTOMOBILES FOR BOYS 


complete outfit of tools, novelty toilet set and 
case, cut glass flower vase, eight day clock and 
mirrors suitably arranged within the body. 

Seating Arrangement.— The broughams and 
coupes are especially arranged for comfortably 
seating the occupants* 

In some the drive is at the rear seats, and the 
steering mechanism may be by means of a wheel, 
as in gasoline cars, or through a lever. 

Most Bodies are now made with aluminum 
panels, and sashless quarter windows, with drop 
doors, front and rear windows, and rain vision 
front windows. 

The Transmission.— This varies in the differ¬ 
ent types, and in the makes. Chains, bevel, or 
worms gears, are employed, and in some cars two 
of these types are used, some of these devices be¬ 
ing the products of the highest engineering skill. 

The rear axles of the smaller vehicles are gen¬ 
erally of the semi-floating type, usually made of 
vadium steel, while the housing is drawn from 
sheet steel. 

For heavier vehicles of the brougham style, the 
rear axles are full-floating and furnished with 
extra large annular ball-bearings in the hubs. 


GLOSSARY OF WORDS 


USED IN TEXT OF THIS VOLUME 


Abrasive. 

Absorbent. 

Accumulate. 

Accentuate. 

Accelerator. 

Accessories. 

Acetylene. 

Alinement. 

Ampere. 


Annular. 

Annularly- 

disposed. 

Anticipate. 

Antennae. 


Anti-friction. 

Armature. 


A material which, wears away another material. 

A material which will take up a liquid. 

To bring together; to amass; to collect. 

To bring out clearly; to lay great stress upon. 

Mechanism for adding to the speed or power. 

The adjuncts to a car, not essential to its running 
but contributing to its make up. 

A hydro-carbon gas, generated from a carbide by the 
application of water. 

Being in line; arranging in proper place. 

The unit of current; the term in which strength of 
the current is measured. An ampere is an electro¬ 
motive force of one volt through a resistance of one 
ohm. 

Pertaining to or formed like a ring. 

Running around; circularly-formed on the outside. 

Thinking or acting ahead. 

A forwardly-projecting feeler, or hair-like appendage. 
Applies to the wires of a wireless telegraphy out¬ 
fit, which are elevated, and receive the high ten¬ 
sion impulses. 

A device or means to prevent the action of rubbing 
or wearing. 

A body of iron or other suitable metal, which is in 
the magnetic field of a magnet. 

215 


216 


GLOSSARY 


Arbitrary. 

Asphaltum. 

Atmosphere. 

Attributable. 

Automatic. 

Available. 

Auxiliary. 

Battery. 

Bearing. 

Bell-crank. 

Binding post. 

Buckled. 


Carbureter. 


Carbureted 

air. 

Carbon. 


Carboniza¬ 

tion. 


Stubborn determination. Doing a thing without re¬ 
gard to consequences. 

A combustible mixture of hydrocarbons*; mineral 
pitch; also found in certain crude oil. 

The mass or body of gases surrounding the earth. 

To ascribe something to a state or condition. 

So made that it will operate without any external 
aid or mechanism. 

That which can be made use of. 

An aid; added to; giving or furnishing aid. 

A combination of two or more cells. 

A term applied to a metal housing in which a journal 
or shaft turns. 

A lever, which is bent at right angles, and is pivoted 
to swing at the point near the right angled bend. 

A stud or projection, usually provided with a hole to 
receive a screw, and adapted to hold a wire. 

Specifically bent or distorted out of shape, but par¬ 
ticularly applied to storage battery plates which 
are bent. 

A mechanical device which is so arranged that it 
will receive and discharge a certain proportion of 
air, and mix therewith a quantity of hydro-carbon 
vapor. 

Air which is charged with a vapor of hydro-carbon 
gas, like gasoline. 

A material like coke, ground or crushed, and formed 
into sticks or plates by molding or compression. 
It requires a high heat to melt or burn, and is 
used as electrodes for arc lamps and for battery 
elements. 

Coated with carbom Turned into the form of carbon. 


GLOSSARY 


217 


Cell. 

Centrifugal. 

Change-speed 

gears. 

Channel bars. 

Chemical 

action. 

Circuiting. 

Circumferen¬ 

tial. 

Clearance. 


Clutch. 


Cooperation. 

Combustion 

chamber. 

Comminuted. 

Commutator. 


Compression. 


Compensate. 

Compounded. 


A vessel containing an electrolyte and two elements. 

The outwardly-moving force from a rotating body. 

The part of an automobile which is in the line of the 
driving shafts, and designed to change the speed of 
the axle relative to the speed of the engine shaft. 

A bar made U-shaped in cross section. 

A term to describe the change brought about by 
uniting chemicals of different kinds. 

The manner of wiring up an electric device so the 
current will perform its work. 

Around the outside. 

That space in the head of an engine cylinder, above 
the piston, in which the gas is compressed previous 
to igniting it. 

A mechanism which is placed on the abutting ends 
of a pair of shafts, and designed to couple or un¬ 
couple the two shafts together. 

Acting in unison. In harmony. 

That part of a cylinder in which the gases are ignited 
and expanded. 

Finely divided. A powder. 

A cylinder on the end of the armature of a dynamo 
or motor, and provided with a pair of contact 
plates for each particular coil in the armature, in 
order to change the direction of the current. 

A term used to designate the forcing together of the 
carbureted air drawn into the chamber of an in¬ 
ternal combustion engine. 

Paying for a thing; to give ample in return. 

The uniting of elements, in such manner that they 
are changed. Water is a compound. The atmos¬ 
phere is merely a mixture. 


218 


Comprehen¬ 

sion. 

Complex. 

Condenser. 


Conduit. 

Conically- 

formed. 

Conductivity. 

Contracted. 

Control. 

Control 

Lever. 

Contact 

Maker. 

Contact 

Breaker. 

Contact 

Plates. 

Constituent. 

Conspicu¬ 

ously. 

Constituting. 

Convolute. 


GLOSSARY 

Understanding. A full knowledge. 

Difficult to understand. Involved. 

A term applied to the changing of gas to a liquid 
state. Used in electrical devices to collect a cur¬ 
rent in high tension apparatus. 

A channel, or an avenue through which liquids may 

be transported. 

Made in the shape of a cone. 

Pertaining to the quality of a material to transmit an 
electrical wave or impulse. 

Drawn in; made smaller. 

Within power to handle. 

A bar by the side of the driver’s seat, which enables 
him to check the speed of the car. 

A device which is designed to keep the circuit broken 
during the revolution of the shaft, and to throw it 
in only momentarily at each revolution. 

A device which is designed to keep the current es¬ 
tablished except during a small portion of each 
revolution. 

A series of plates arranged in an electric circuit which 
are to be successively thrown into the circuit. 

An element; one part of a combination of elementary 
substances. 

Prominent. In the foreground. 

That which comprises the elements in a material. 

That of which it is made. 

A spiral form of winding, like a watch spring. 


GLOSSARY 


219 


Corrosion. 

Counterpart. 

Counteract. 

Crucial*. 

Cylindrical 

Cycle. 

Cycle (Two). 


Cycle (Four). 


Dead Center. 

Deflected. 

Depression. 

Designated. 

Deteriorate. 

Deviation. 

Diameter. 

Diagonally. 

Diagrammat- 

ically. 

Diagram. 

Diagnosis. 


To disintegrate. To be eaten away by acid, or the 
action of any material, or by the weather. 

The same as; something like another; similar to. 

To act in a contrary direction; adversely to. 

The testing point; a difficult or trying position. 

Having the form of a cylinder. A barrel-like shap* 
or form. 

A period; a time during which certain elements 
operate or act. 

An internal combustion engine, in which the gas is 
drawn in and exploded at each revolution of the 
crank shaft. 

An internal combustion engine, in which the gas is 
drawn in and exploded at every other revolution 
of the crank shaft. 

A term to designate the inoperative point of the 
crank. 

Driven away; thrown off. 

A recess; a sunken part. 

Named; set forth; pointed out. 

Depleted; grown worse. 

Changed from a certain course. 

The direction across a body. 

Any direction which is not across a body at right 
angles, nor longitudinal. 

A drawing which shows the relation and operation of 
parts, without showing them in the correct mechan¬ 
ical structural forms. 

A drawing or sketch which shows the characteristics 
of a structure in simple lines. 

An examination which takes into consideration all the 
elements which make up the condition. 


220 

Differential. 


Dioxide of 
Manganese. 
Disengaged. 
Distillation. 


Dissecting. 

Distribution. 

Distilled. 

Dynamo. 


Effective. 

Electrolyte. 

Eliminate. 

Elliptical. 

Emergency. 

Equipped. 

Excessive. 

Exhaust. 

Expansion. 


GLOSSARY 

Any mechanism which seeks to take care of and 
utilize the difference of speed or power in the 
various elements in a machine. 

The native state of manganese. 

Separated from; not attached. 

The act of abstracting a substance by vaporization, 
and afterwards returning the vapor to a liquid 
form by means of a cool temperature. The act of 
separating the more volatile from the less volatile 
parts of a substance. 

Taking apart; viewing the separated or different ele¬ 
ments. 

Spread about; in electricity, the method of directing 
the current to various parts of the system. 

A liquid which has been vaporized and condensed back 
into a liquid. 

An apparatus, consisting of field and core magnets, 
which, when the core is turned, will develop a cur¬ 
rent of electricity. 

Producing the best results. 

Any material which is capable of being decomposed 
by an electric current. 

To take away from; to remove; to take out. 

A form which is in the shape of an ellipse. 

At the last or critical moment. 

Built with; arranged with all the elements. 

Too much; more than normal. 

The discharge of the burnt gas from an internal 
combustion engine. 

The term applied to the increases in volume by heat 
of a gas, or other substance. 


GLOSSARY 


221 


Expansion 

line. 

Explosion. 

Equalizer. 

Facility. 

Fascination. 

Field. 

Fire test. 

Flash system. 
Flash point. 

Flexible. 

Floating. 

Foot pounds. 


Formation. 

Frictional. 

Fulcrum. 

Function. 

Fundamental. 


The line formed by the different pressures at various 
parts of the piston during the active stroke. 

The burning and expansive force of a fuel. 

A mechanical element which is interposed between a 
moving and two or more moved parts to even up 
the force upon the moved parts. 

Ease; easiness in performing. 

Attraction; an irresistible or powerful influence. 

A term used to designate the magnetic influence of 
pole pieces which surround an armature in a dy¬ 
namo or motor. 

The determination of the point at which any substance 
will actually burst into flame. 

A method of igniting substances. A leaping spark. 

The temperature at which a fuel will flash but not 
burn. 

Yielding; capable of being distorted. 

A condition in which a substance will not sink in a 
liquid. 

A unit, usually determined by the number of pounds 
raised one foot in one second of time. 550 pounds 
raised one foot in one second of time, means 550 
foot pounds. 

The act, or process of making, by the combination 
of materials. 

The rubbing together of parts. 

The point round which a lever turns. 

Any specific power of acting or operating that be¬ 
longs to an agent. 

The first. The primitive order of anything, or of 
any act. 


222 


GLOSSARY 


Gasket. 


Gear Box. 

Gear- 

Shifting. 

Globules. 

Gravity. 


Graphite. 

Ground 
carbon. 
High tension. 

Herring bone. 


Hood. 

Housing. 

Hummock. 

Hydro¬ 

carbon. 

Hydrogen. 

Idler pinion. 


A small interposing substance, usually softer than 
the united particles, for the purpose of effecting a 
tight joint. 

A case or shell designed to hold the transmission, or 
other wheels, in a piece of mechanism. 

The mechanism for changing the speed gears in an 
automobile. 

Small particles of liquid. 

The attraction of mass for mass; weight; the accel¬ 
erating tendency of material to move toward the 
earth. 

A form of carbon. A natural product especially 
used as a dry lubricant. 

Usually gas coke. 

An electric current which has an exceedingly high 
voltage. 

A term applied to various mechanical structures. It 
is primarily made up of a rib from which a num¬ 
ber of small spines branch out in opposite direc¬ 
tions. 

The covering or enclosure at the forward part of an 
automobile, within which the engine is placed. 

Any enclosure, or covering. 

A rising, more or less pronounced, in the roadway. 

Usually applied to a gas evolved from gasoline. This 
substance has from 80 to 83 per cent, of carbon, 
and from 12 to 15 per cent, of hydrogen. 

One of the lightest elementary substances. Two- 
thirds of water is hydrogen. 

A small gear, usually placed so it may be moved 
to be in contact with one or more gears, but is 
not directly connected up in the line of the gearing. 


Ignitable. 

Immaterial. 

Imparted. 

Impregnated. 

Impalpable. 

Impulses. 

Impediment. 

Impact. 

Incline. 

Induction 

coil. 


Ingredient. 

Inductor. 

Inflation. 

Inflammable. 

Intervening. 

Integral. 

Intersection. 

Interrupter. 

Interposed. 

Intimate. 

Insidious. 

Internal, 

expanding. 


GLOSSARY 223 

The term applied to substances which can be brought 
to the point of burning or exploding. 

Not important. 

Given to something else; transferred over. 

To infuse or saturate with another substance. 

Exceedingly fine. 

An action which is irregular or at certain periods. 

Something which is in the way. 

A striking against; a force which contacts with an¬ 
other. 

A declivity; a slope. 

A core with two windings thereon, one of coarse and 
one of fine wire, so as to change a current from a 
low voltage to a high voltage, and from a high 
amperage to a correspondingly low amperage. 

The element in a compound. 

Any part of an electrical apparatus which acts on 
another by induction. 

The stimulation or the arousing to unnatural action. 

The enlarging of a substance. 

Any substance which will burn is called inflammable. 

Between; intermediate certain things, or parts. 

A part of; different parts of a machine which are of 
the same substance. 

To divide at a certain point. The crossing point of 
one line over another. 

A piece of mechanism which cuts out an electric 
current at regular intervals. 

Placed before; coming between. 

Very close. Nearly related. 

An influence, not of the best. 

Referring to the condition of a gas within an internal 
combustion engine. 


224 

Internal cone. 

Intermeshing. 

Intermittent. 

Intermingle. 

Internal 

combustion. 

Insulated. 


Invariably. 
Journaled. 
Jump spark. 


Lapped. 

Lateral. 


Lock nut. 

Longitudinal. 
Low tension. 
Lubricant. 

Lubrication. 

Magnet. 


GLOSSARY 

A clutch which has a cone within the wheel, to re¬ 
ceive a part which contacts with it. 

The meeting of the teeth of gears. 

Having periods of intermission. 

Mixing. Closely united. 

A burning within a cylinder or chamber. 

A conductor, or other material so coated as to pre¬ 
vent a current of electricity from passing, to or 
from the same through the substance so placed on 
it. 

Constant; a uniform condition. 

Held within a bearing so it may revolve. 

A system of igniting the carbureted air in an ex¬ 
plosion engine, which consists in having a small 
separation between the points in a conductor, and 
in using a current with a sufficiently high voltage 
to jump across the gap thus made. 

A term used to designate the smoothing out of engine 
cylinders or of any metal too hard to be handled 
by the lathe. 

Across; longitudinal, means lengthwise, and lateral is 
the term to express the direction at right angles 
to the longitudinal line. 

Any device which will prevent the nut from turning 
loose after being tightened. 

The long way across an article. 

A current which has a low voltage. 

Any substance which, when applied to moving parts, 
will decrease friction. 

The act of applying a lubricant. 

A metallic substance which has power to attract iron 
or steel. 



GLOSSARY 225 

Magneto. 

A permanent magnet and a revolving armature for 
generating a current. 

Magnetic 

pull. 

Magnetic 

field. 

Make and 

break. 

The action exercised by a magnet of attracting or 
repelling. 

The space or region near a magnet or charged wire. 

In igniting systems a piece of mechanism which 
makes and breaks a circuit, so as to produce a spark 
each time when the wires are separated. 

Manifold. 

A series of piping on the engine, so as to bring all 
the inlet or exhaust pipes together. 

Manually. 

Maximum. 

Operating by hand. 

The utmost; the greatest amount or sum. 


Mesh. Fitting together, like the teeth of gear wheels. 

Mean Effective That pressure in the movement of a cylinder which 


Pressure. 

represents the average, as the piston moves from 
end to end of its stroke. 

Metallic 

couples. 

Minimize. 

Misconcep¬ 

tion. 

Misnomer. 

Minutely. 

Momentarily. 

Momentum. 

Usually two metals of different structure, and of 
different polarities. 

To belittle; the smallest amount. 

A wrong idea; a mistaken view. 

A false name; a wrong appellation. 

Very accurate; correct to the smallest feature. 

For an instant only. 

That quality of matter which is the combined energy 
of mass and speed. Inertia. 

Multi¬ 

cylinder. 

Multiple. 

More than one; several put together. 

Containing or consisting of more than one. 


Multiple disk. A form of clutch where there are a number of disks 
which contact with one another. 


226 


GLOSSARY 


Muffler. 

Neutral. 

Normal. 

Obliquely. 

Obstruction. 

Operation. 

Oxygen. 


Parallel. 

Pedestrian. 

Perceptible. 

Perimeter. 

Pedal. 

Permanent 

magnet. 

Perspective. 

Pinion. 

Planetary. 

Plurality. 

Plumbago. 

Potentiality. 

Positive. 

Pre-ignition. 

Precision. 


A device for silencing the noise of the explosion of 
the engine. 

Neither. 

The usual form, manner, or condition. 

Branching off from a straight line, at an angle. 

Something in the way. 

A process; an act, or a manner of doing a thing. 

The life giving element in the atmosphere. One-third 
of water is oxygen; one-fifth of the atmosphere is 
oxygen. 

The same distance apart all along. 

A footman; a walker. 

That which can be observed with our senses. 

The outer margin of a wheel; the bounding line of 
any figure of two dimensions. 

A foot operated lever. 

A bar of steel, charged with magnetism which it 
retains indefinitely. 

A view of an object which shows all three dimen¬ 
sions from one side. 

A small toothed wheel. 

A system of gears where two or more mesh with and 
revolve around a central gear. 

Numerous; more than one. 

Graphite; a form of carbon; a lubricant. 

The term applied to the volts and amperes in an 
electric current. 

One which deflects a needle to the left. 

Where the spark ignites the charge before the piston 
begins to descend, or ahead of its proper time. 

A system of oiling the machinery which depends on 
a pump that sends in a definite amount of lubri¬ 
cant at each turn of the engine. 


GLOSSARY 


227 


Predetermin- 

ate 

Preferential. 

Primary. 


Proportion¬ 

ate. 

Properties. 

Protective. 

Progressive. 

Propelling. 

Pneumatic. 

Push leg. 


Puncture. 

Quadrant. 

Radiating. 

Radiation. 

Radiator. 

Raceway. 

Radius. 

Rectilinear. 

Recessed. 

Reinforce. 

Requisite. 


Arranging beforehand. 

A more satisfactory manner, or time; estimating one 
thing above another. 

The first. As applied to electrical devices it has 
reference to a battery which generates a current in 
contradistinction to the secondary or storage bat¬ 
tery. 

The ratio to something else. This compared with 
that. 

The attributes of matter. 

That which shields; a covering, or an enclosure. 

Proceeding in a direct line. 

Moving; drawing; giving motive power. 

Pertaining to air. 

An old system of propelling mechanism for vehicles. 
Not used in that manner now. The pawl engaging 
a lever, is the only form in which the push leg is 
now employed. 

A rupture; a hole; a tear. 

One-fourth of a circle. 

Moving out in all directions from a common center. 

Applied to the movement of heat from a body. 

A device which cools water, by the application of air. 

A track for the movement and guidance of anti-fric¬ 
tion balls. 

That line from a center to the circumferential or 
outer line or point. 

Right; straight. 

A depression; a cavity. 

The term applied to any means which may be em¬ 
ployed to strengthen any part. 

Necessary. 


228 

Registering. 

Resorted. 

Refinement. 

Retreating. 

Reversed. 

Resiliency. 

Resistance. 


Ribbed. 
Rock shaft. 
Rotatable. 


Rotor arm. 

Saturate. 

Secondary. 

Sectional. 

Selector. 

Selector plate. 

Series. 


GLOSSARY 

To indicate; also applied to mechanism where one 
part exactly coincides with another part. 

Where one device is utilized instead of another. 

Made better; a more satisfactory form. 

Falling back; one part to the rear of another. 

Turned about; in the opposite direction. Inversed 
means; upside down. 

That property of matter which will yield, or change 
its form and return to its original form. 

That property of all matter to object to a change of 
form; the force which opposes the movement of a 
current through a conductor. 

Having raised surfaces, of greater or less length. 

A shaft which turns back and forth; oscillating. 

Turning, as a wheel on its axle; often confounded 
with the word revoluble, which describes the move¬ 
ment of a body through an orbit. The earth ro¬ 
tates on its axis once every twenty-four hours; it 
revolves through space around the suri once every 
year. 

An arm adapted to swing through an arc. 

To absorb a liquid or gas to full capacity. 

The second place; applied to a battery, it is one 
which receives and holds a charge. 

A part; a view across the parts. 

A plate with notches in it for a lever, which is moved 
through the openings at the will of the operator. 

The notched, or slotted plate, in which the trans¬ 
mission lever travels. 

One following directly after the other; in electrical 
connections, the wires attached in line from posi¬ 
tive to negative, through the different cells. 


GLOSSARY 


229 


Series mul¬ 
tiple. 

Segment. 


Self starting. 

Self-induct¬ 

ance. 

Selective. 


Service 

brake 

Semi-floating. 


Shackle 

Simultaneous. 

Solution. 

Soapstone. 

Speculate. 

Sprocket. 


A wiring system wherein the cells are placed in two 
or more groups, and the groups connected up in 
series. 

A portion of a disk cut off by a straight line. Dis¬ 
tinguished from a sector which is made by two 
radial lines running from the center to the circum¬ 
ference. 

A mechanism on automobiles for starting the engine 
without muscular effort. 

In electricity, the property of one metal to receive 
an electrical charge without being in contact with 
the charged wire. 

The term applied to a system of transmission, 
whereby the driver is able to select any speed with¬ 
out going through any intermediate speed. 

The brake ordinarily used in running a car. 

An axle in which the wheels are secured directly to 
the axle shafts, but where the reaction of the dif¬ 
ferential and bevel gear drive is supported by the 
axle housing. 

A device for restraining or holding. 

At the same time; occurring at the same moment. 

To solve a question. To dissolve solid matter in a 
liquid. 

A rock which has a structure similar to that of 
soap. 

To consider a subject from the standpoint of proba¬ 
bilities. 

A wheel with teeth in it adapted to engage with a 
chain, for driving purposes. 

A gear with teeth which are at right angles with the 
body of the gear. 


Spur gear. 


230 


GLOSSARY 


Spline. 

Sparking. 

Spark ping. 

V 

Structurally. 

Straight line 
drive. 


Stranded 
(cable). 
Storage bat¬ 
tery. 

Susceptible. 

Superheated. 


Surging. 


Symptoms. 

Systematic. 

Technicali¬ 

ties. 


A rib usually along the side of a shaft, to engage in 
a groove in the hub or wheel. 

The jumping of a spark from one conductor to 
another due to the high heat developed when the 
current leaps the gap. 

A plug which has in it two conductors which lead to 
its inner end, and have their ends in close prox¬ 
imity, across which the current leaps. 

The manner in which a device is made of its various 
parts. 

The system of transmitting power in an automobile, 
which consists in employing a train of shafting in 
a direct line from the engine shaft to the differen¬ 
tial. 

A conductor, or wire rope, made up of a number of 
small wire strands. 

A container, or accumulator, of electricity, which is 
designed to receive a charge of electricity, and to 
give it forth as required. 

A condition in which the truth is considered prob¬ 
able from a knowledge of all the surroundings. 

A substance, such as steam, heated above the normal 
temperature which is given to it when it is gen¬ 
erated. 

The term applied to a high tension current, which, 
during the impulses, appears to move back and 
forth, as though it possessed elasticity. 

Appearances; the outward manifestations of a con¬ 
dition. 

Done in regular order. 

The scientific and orderly terms and requirements. 


GLOSSARY 


231 


Tension. 


Terminal. 

Threaded. 

Throttle. 

Timing. 
Timing de¬ 
vice. 
Torque. 
Torsional. 
Transmis¬ 
sion. 
Tubular 
housing. 
Turnbuckle. 

Undulating. 

Unison. 

Universal. 

Universal 

jeint. 

Utilized. 

Vacuum. 

Vaporize. 

Venturi. 

Vertical. 

Vibratory 

coil. 


Voltage. The force of the current. Also the power 
applied on a spring, or the amount of force it will 
exert. 

The end, or the starting point, as well as the last or 
final end of a wire or connection. 

The spirally-formed ribs on a bolt or in a nut. 

The device on an automobile which opens or closes 
the discharge port of a carbureter. 

A device which times the sparking mechanism. 

The entire mechanism which provides for sparking at 
certain periods. 

A twist. 

A movement around a shaft. 

The mechanism which sends the power from the en¬ 
gine to the axles. 

A covering, or shield for a shaft such as a tube, 
within which the shaft is mounted. 

A device which provides for tightening a rod, wire, 
or strut. 

Wave-like j a regular motion of a sinuous character. 

Together; acting as one. 

Pertaining to all things. 

A joint connecting two shafts so arranged that the 
shafts may be placed at an angle with each other. 

To take advantage of. To use. 

A space from which the air has been exhausted. 

Changing from a solid or liquid into a gas. 

A form of tube which is contracted between the ends. 

A direction at right angles to the surface of water. 

A coil in a high tension circuit that has a spring 
finger which, in vibrating to and fro, cuts the cur¬ 
rent in and out. 


232 


GLOSSARY 


Viscosity. 


Volatile. 

Volts. 

Vulcanizing. 


A glutinous, sticky body; slowly flowing; opposed to 
mobility; usually applied to thick oils. The de¬ 
gree of cohesion of a liquid, usually in connection 
with oils. 

That which is easily changed into a gas at ordinary 
temperatures. 

The measure of the tension of a current. 

The process of treating raw rubber with sulphur in 
the presence of heat. 


The Motor Boys Series 

(Trade Mark, Reg. U. S. Pat. Of .) 

By CLARENCE YOUNG 

12mo. Illustrated. Price per volume, 60 cents, postpaid. 


fs 

EESIllb^ 


MOTOR BOYS 





& 


€1 



The Motor Boys 

or Chums Through Thick and Thin 

The Motor Boys Overland 

or A Lone Trip for Fun and Fortune 

The Motor Boys in Mexico. 

or The Secret of The Buried City 

The Motor Boys Across the Plains 

or The Hermit of Lost Lake 


The Motor Boys Afloat 

or The Stirring Cruise of the 
Dartaway 

The Motor Boys on the Atlantic 

or The Mystery of the Lighthouse 

The Motor Boys in Strange Waters 

or Lost in a Floating Forest 

The Motor Boys on the Pacific 

or The Young Derelict Hunters 




The Motor Boys in the Clouds 

or A Trip for Fame and Fortune 

The Motor Boys Over the Rockies 

or A Mystery of the Air 

The Motor Boys Over the Ocean 

or A Marvellous Rescue in Mid-Air 

The Motor Boys on the Wing 

or Seeking the Airship Treasure 


The Motor Boys After a Fortune 

or The Hut on Snake Island 

The Motor Boys on the Border 

or Sixty Nuggets of Gold 

The Motor Boys Under the Sea 

or From Airship to Submarine 

The Motor Boys on Road and River 

(new) or Racing to Save a Life 


r- , 

> 

sr 

THE 

MOTOR BOYS 
^ITERAPOKpiE 




dBSgS* 

i! 

ci*R»ice voywo 


CUPPLES & LEON CO., Publishers, 


NEW YORK 





































Up-to-date Baseball stories 

Baseball Joe Series 

By LESTER CHADWICK 
Author of “The College Sports Series” 

12mo. Illustrated. Price per volume, 60 cents, postpaid. 


Ever since the success of Mr. Chadwick's 
“College Sports Series” we have been urged 
to get him to write a series dealing exclu¬ 
sively with baseball, a subject in which he is 
unexcelled by any living American author 
or coach. 

Baseball Joe of the silver Stars 

or The Rivals of Riverside 

In this volume, the first of the series, Joe 
is introduced as an everyday country boy 
who loves to play baseball and is particularly 
anxious to make his mark as a pitcher. He finds it almost 
impossible to get on the local nine, but, after a struggle, he 
succeeds. A splendid picture of the great national game in 
the smaller towns of our country. 

Baseball Joe on the School Nine 

or Pitching for the Blue Banner 

Joe's great ambition was to go to boarding school and play 
on the school team. He got to boarding school but found it 
harder making the team there than it was getting on the nine 
at home. He fought his way along, and at last saw his chance 
and took it, and made good. 

Baseball Joe at Yale 

or Pitching for the College Championship 

From a preparatory school Baseball Joe goes to Yale Uni¬ 
versity. He makes the freshman nine and in his second year 
becomes a varsity pitcher and pitches in several big games. 

Baseball joe in the Central League 

or Making Good as a Professional Pitcher 

In this volume the scene of action is shifted from Yale Col¬ 
lege to a baseball league of our central states. Baseball Joe's 
work in the box for Old Eli had been noted by one of the 
managers and Joe gets an offer he cannot resist. Joe accepts 
the offer and makes good. 

Baseball Joe in the Big League 

or A Young Pitcher’s Hardest Struggle 

From the Central League Joe is drafted into the St. Louis 
Nationals. At first he has little to do in the pitcher’s box, but 
gradually he wins favor. A corking baseball story that fans, 
both young and old, will enjoy. 



CUPPLES & LEON CO., Publishers, 


NEW YORK 








The Racer Boys Series 

by CLARENCE YOUNG 

Author of “The Motor Boys Series", “Jack Ranger Series”, etc. etc. 
Fine cloth binding. Illustrated. Price per volume, 60c postpaid. 


The announcement of a new series of stories by 
Mr. Clarence Young is always hailed with delight 
by boys and girls throughout the country, and we 
predict an even greater success for these new books, 
than that now enjoyed by the ‘ ‘Motor Boys Series. ’’ 

The Racer Boys 

or The Mystery of the Wreck 
This, the first volume of the series, tells who 
the Racer Boys were and how they chanced to be 
out on the ocean in a great storm. Adventures 
follow in rapid succession in a manner that only Mr. Young can describe. 

The Racer Boys At Boarding School 

or Striving for the Championship 
When the Racer Boys arrived at the school everything was at a stand¬ 
still, and the students lacked ambition and leadership. The Racers 
took hold with a will, got their father to aid the head of the school 
financially, and then reorganized the football team. 

The Racer Boys To The Rescue 

or Stirring Days in a Winter Camp 
Here is a story filled with the spirit of good times in winter—skating, 
ice-boating and hunting. 

The Racer Boys on The Prairies 

or The Treasure of Golden Peak 
From their boarding school the Racer Boys accept an invitation to 
visit a ranch in the West. 

The Racer Boys on Guard 

or The Rebellion of Riverview Hall 
Once more the boys are back at boarding school, where they have 
many frolics, and enter more than one athletic contest. 

The Racer Boys Forging Ahead 

or The Rivals of the School League 
Once more the Racer Boys go back to Riverview Hall, to meet their 
many chums as well as several enemies. Athletics play an important 
part in this volume, and the rivalry is keen from start to finish. The 
Racer Boys show what they can do under the most trying circumstances. 



CUPPLES & LEON CO., Publishers 


NEW YORK 











The Dorothy Dale Series 

By MARGARET PENROSE 
Author of “The Motor Girls Series” 

12mo. Illustrated. Price per volume, 60 cents, postpaid. 


Dorothy Dale: A Girl of To-Day 

Dorothy is the daughter of an old Civil 
War veteran who is running a weekly news¬ 
paper in a small Eastern town. When her 
father falls sick, the girl shows what she 
can do to support the family. 

Dorothy Dale at Glenwood 
School 

More prosperous times have come to the 
Dale family, and Major Dale resolves to send 
Dorothy to a boarding school. 

DOROTHY DALE’S GREAT SECRET 

A splendid story of one girl's devotion to another. How 
Dorothy kept the secret makes an absorbing story. 

Dorothy Dale and Her Chums 

A story of school life, and of strange adventures among the 
gypsies. 

Dorothy Dale’s Queer Holidays 

Relates the details of a mystery that surrounded Tangle- 
wood Park. 

Dorothy Dales Camping Days 

Many things happen, from the time Dorothy and her chums 
are met coming down the hillside on a treacherous load of hay. 

Dorothy Dale’s School Rivals 

Dorothy and her chum, Tavia, return to Glenwood School. 
A new student becomes Dorothy’s rival and troubles at home 
add to her difficulties. 

Dorothy dale in the City 

Dorothy is invited to New York City by her aunt. This 
tale presents a clever picture of life in New York as it appears 
to one who has never before visited the Metropolis. 

Dorothy Dale’s Promise 

Strange indeed was the promise and given under strange 
circumstances. Only a girl as strong of purpose as was Dorothy 
Dale would have undertaken the task she set for herself. 

DOROTHY DALE IN THE WEST 

Dorothy's father and her aunt inherited a valuable tract 
of land in the West. The aunt, Dorothy and Tavia, made a 
long journey to visit the place, where they had many adventures. 



CUPPLES & LEON CO., Publishers, 


NEW YORK 









The Motor Girls Series 

By MARGARET PENROSE 

Author of the highly successful "Dorothy Dale Series" 

12mo. Illustrated. Price per volume, 60 cents, postpaid. 


The Motor Girls 1 

or A Mystery of the Road 

When Cora Kimball got her touring car~she 
did not imagine so many adventures were in 
store for her. A tale all wide awake girls 
will appreciate. 

The Motor Girls on a Tour 

or Keeping a Strange Promise 

A great many things happen in this vol¬ 
ume. A precious heirloom is missing, and how it was traced 
up is told with absorbing interest. 

The Motor Girls at Lookout Beach 

or In Quest of the Runaways 

There was a great excitement when the Motor Girls decided 
to go to Lookout Beach for the summer. 

The Motor Girls Through New England’ 

or Held by the Gypsies 

A strong story and one which will make this series more 
popular than ever. The girls go on a motoring trip through 
New England. 

The Motor Girls on Cedar Lake 

or The Hermit of Fern Island ^ ^ 

How Cora and her chums went camping on the lake shore 
and how they took trips in their motor boat, are told in a way 
all girls will enjoy. w 

The motor Girls on the coast 

or The Waif from the Sea 

The scene is shifted to the sea coast where the girls pay 
a visit. They have their motor boat with them and go out 
for many good times. f y 

The Motor Girls on Crystal Bat '■> 

or The Secret of the Red Oar 

More jolly times, on the water and at a cute little bungalow 
on the snore of the bay. A tale that will interest all girls. 

The motor Girls on Waters Blue 

or The Strange Cruise of the Tartar 

Before the girls started on a long cruise down to the 
West Indies, they fell in with a foreign girl and she informed 
them that her father was being held a political prisoner on 
one of the islands. A story that is full of fun as well as mystery. 



CUPPLES & LEON CO., Publishers, 


NEW YORK 










Ruth Fielding Series 

By ALICE B. EMERSON 

12mo. Illustrated. Price per volume, 40 cents, postpaid. 



Ruth fielding of The Red mill 

or Jaspar Parloe’s Secret 

Telling how Ruth, an orphan girl, came 
to live with her miserly uncle, and how 
the girl's sunny disposition melted the old 
miller's heart. 

Ruth fielding at briarwood Hall 

or Solving the Campus Mystery 

Ruth was sent by her uncle to boarding 
school. She made many friends, also one 
enemy, who made much trouble for her. 


Ruth Fielding at Snow Camp 

or Lost in the Backwoods 

A thrilling tale of adventures in the backwoods in winter, 
is told in a manner to interest every girl. 


Ruth Fielding at Lighthouse Point 

or Nita, the Girl Castaway 

From boarding school the scene is shifted to the Atlantic 
Coast, where Ruth goes for a summer vacation with some chums. 

Ruth Fielding at Silver Ranch 

or Schoolgirls Among the Cowboys 

A story with a western flavor. How the girls came to the 
rescue of Bashful Ike, the cowboy, is told in a way that is most 
absorbing. 

Ruth Fielding on Cliff Island 

or The Old Hunter’s Treasure Box 

Ruth and her friends go to Cliff Island, and there have 
many good times during the winter season. 


Ruth Fielding at Sunrise Farm 

or What Became of the Raby Orphans 

Jolly good times at a farmhouse in the country, where Ruth 
rescues two orphan children who ran away. 


Ruth Fielding and the Gypsies 

or The Missing Pearl Necklace 

This volume tells of stirring adventures at a Gypsy encamp¬ 
ment, of a missing heirloom, and how Ruth has it restored to 
its owner. 


CUPPLES & LEON CO., Publishers, 


NEW YORK 










The Dave Dashaway 
Series 

By ROY ROCKWOOD 

Author of the “Speedwell Boys Series” and the “Great Marvel Series.” 

12mo. Illustrated. Price per volume, 40 cents, postpaid. 

Never was there a more clever young aviator than Dave 
Dashaway. All up-to-date lads will surely wish to read 
about him. 


Dave Dashaway the Young Aviator 

or In the Clouds for Fame and Fortune 

This initial volume tells how the hero ran 
away from his miserly guardian, fell in with 
a successful airman, and became a young 
aviator of note. 

Dave Dashaway and His 
Hydroplane 

or Daring Adventures Over the Great Lakes 

Showing how Dave continued his career as a birdman and 
had many adventure® over the Great Lakes, and how he 
foiled the plans of some Canadian smugglers. 

Dave Dashaway and His Giant Airship 

or A Marvellous 1 rip Across the Atlantic 

How the giant airship was constructed and how the daring 
young aviator and his friends made the hazardous journey 
through the clouds from the new world to the old, is told in a 
way to hold the reader spellbound. 

Dave Dashaway Around the World 

or A Young Yankee Aviator Among Many Nations 

An absorbing tale of a great air flight around the world, 
of adventures in Alaska, Siberia and elsewhere. A true to 
life picture of what may be accomplished in the near future. 

Dave Dashaway: Air Champion 

or Wizard Work in the Clouds 

Dave makes several daring trips, and then enters a contest 
for a big prize. An aviation tale thrilling in the extreme. 



CUPPLES & LEON CO., Publishers, 


NEW YORK 












The Speedwell Boys 
Series 

By ROY ROCKWOOD 

Author of “The Dave Dashaway Series,” “Great Marvel Series,” etc. 

12mo. Illustrated. Price per volume, 40 cents, postpaid. 

All boys who love to be on the go will welcome the Speed* 
well boys. They are clean cut and loyal lads. 



The Speedwell Boys on motor 
Cycles 

or The Mystery of a Great Conflagration 

The lads were poor, but they did a rich 
man a great service and he presented them 
with their motor cycles. What a great fire 
led to is exceedingly well told. 

The Speedwell Boys and Their 
Racing Auto 

or A Run for the Golden Cup 


A tale of automobiling and of intense rivalry on the road. 
There was an endurance run and the boys entered the contest. 
On the run they rounded up some men who were wanted by 
the law. 


The Speedwell Boys and Their Power Launch 

or To the Rescue of the Castaways 

Here is an unusual story. There was a wreck, and the lads, 
in their power launch, set out to the rescue. A vivid picture 
of a great storm adds to the interest of the tale. 


The Speedwell boys in a Submarine 

or The Lost Treasure of Rocky Cove 

An old sailor knows of a treasure lost under water because 
of a cliff falling into the sea. The boys get a chance to go 
out in a submarine and they make a hunt for the treasure. 


The Speedwell Boys and Their Ice Racer 

or The Perils of a Great Blizzard 

The boys had an idea for a new sort of iceboat, to be run 
by combined wind and motor power. How they built the craft, 
and what fine times they had on board of it, is well related. 


CUPPLES & LEON CO., Publishers, 


NEW YORK 


































































































































































